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  baptismCeconomic consequences toward certain attitude concerning sex and sexuality that appear to be derived from puritan's beginning, A case or sex scandal involving Bill Clinton and Lewinsky illustrates the continuity impact of puritan structure of imagination on the natural culture, shifts and developments of legacies,It is believed that problems with consummation can terminate a marriage especially if a groom proved impotent, the contract between the couple dissolved through an enactment enforced by the courts, The courts could also enforce the duty of a husband to support his wife, as English Common Law provided that when a woman married, she gave all her property to her husband and abide as per marital obligations, losing her separate civil identity in the welfare of a husband, In so doing, she legally accepted her role as managing her husband's household, fulfilling her duty of being at home, helping Ugg Boots on Sale uk in, educating her children, keeping and improving what is got by the work of the husband,In Puritan united state of America, the family was the fundamental unit of society, the place where Puritans emphasized and perfected religious, ethical, and social values and expectations of the community at large, The English Puritan William Gouge indicated that a family is a little Church, and a little common-wealth as is currently regarded and at least a lively representation thereof, whereby trial may be made of such as are fit for any place of authorities, or of subjection in Church or commonwealth, Or rather it can be regarded as a school wherein the first principles and grounds of rules and regulations are learned and observed whereby men are fitted to greater matters in Church or common-wealth analogy, The great relationships within the nuclear family, along with interactions between the family and the larger community, distinguished Puritans from other early inhabitants, Moral authority and obedience characterized the relationship between Puritan parents and their children, The importance of Proper love meant proper discipline, In every society essentially without police, the family was the basic unit of control and supervision, It is believed that disciplining disobedient children mostly was derived from a spiritual concern, This system resulted to setting of some clauses to protect the rights of children, elders, and citizens at large, This is a system that is highly embraced in American society, It is known that a breakdown in family rule indicated a disregard of God's order, As cited in the quotation, Fathers and mothers have ls first multi-racial elections in April 1994, with the ANC winning sixty-two percent of the vote, On 10 May 1994, Mandela was inaugurated as South Africa is the other side of the coin, as translators may be considered responsible for the consequences of their performance, Thus, it is no coincidence that ethical debates are flourishing in translation studies (Pym 2001; Chesterman 2001),Copyright (c) Ahmad Alim American Revolution and War for Independence IntroductionThis paper is dedicated to the history of American Revolution and the War for Independence, The primary purpose of the survey given here is to carry out an analysis of the events of the late 18th century in the British colonies in North America on the basis of vast historical material published in the United States, The process that took place before and during the 1776-1783 period when 13 British colonies' aspiration for independence broke out into the so-called War for Independence is very remarkable for it's many unique features, on the one hand, and for many historical parallels that took place a century later when the world-wide spreaded colonial system began to collapse,John Adams, second President of the United States, declared that the history of the American Revolution began as far back as 1620, "The Revolution," he said, "was effected before the war commenced, The Revolution was in the minds and hearts of the people," The principles and passions that led the Americans to rebel ought, he added, "to be traced back for two hundred years and sought in the history of the country from the first plantation in America,"As a practical matter, however, the overt parting of the ways between England and America began in 1763, more than a century and a half after the first permanent settlement had been founded at Jamestown, Virginia, The colonies had grown vastly in economic strength and cultural attainment, and virtually all had long years of self-government behind them, Their combined population now exceeded 1,500,000-a six-fold increase since 1700,The implications of the physical growth of the colonies were far greater than mere numerical increase would indicate, The 18th century brought a steady expansion from the influx of immigrants from Europe, and since the best land near the seacoast had already been occupied, new settlers had to push inland beyond the fall line of the rivers, Traders explored the back country, brought back tales of rich valleys, and induced farmers to take their families into the wilderness, Although their hardships were enormous, restless settlers kept coming, and by the 1730s frontiersmen had already begun to pour into the Shenandoah Valley,Down to 1763, Great Britain had formulated no consistent policy for her colonial possessions, The guiding principle was the confirmed mercantilist view that colonies should supply the mother country with raw materials and not compete in manufacturing, But policy was poorly enforced, and the colonies had never thought of themselves as subservient, Rather, they considered themselves chiefly as commonwealths or states, much like England herself, having only a loose association with authorities in London,At infrequent intervals, sentiment in England was aroused and efforts were made by Parliament or the Crown to subordinate the economic activities and governments of the colonies to England's will and interest - efforts to which the majority of the colonists were opposed, The remoteness afforded by a vast ocean allayed fears of reprisal the colonies might otherwise have had,Added to this remoteness was the character of life itself in early America, From countries limited in space and dotted with populous towns, the settlers had come to a land of seemingly unending reach, On such a continent natural conditions stressed the importance of the individual,1, Frontier situationThe colonists-inheritors of the traditions of the Englishman's long struggle for political liberty-incorporated concepts of freedom into Virginia's first charter, This provided that English colonists were to exercise all liberties, franchises, and immunities "as if they had been abiding and born within this our Realm of England," They were, then, to enjoy the benefits of the Magna Charta and the common law,In the early days, the colonies were able to hold fast to their heritage of rights because of the King's arbitrary assumption that they were not subject to parliamentary control, In addition, for years afterward, the kings of England were too preoccupied with a great struggle in England itself - a struggle which culminated in the Puritan Revolution - to enforce their will, Before Parliament could bring its attention to the task of molding the American colonies to an imperial policy, they had grown strong and prosperous in their own right,From the first year after they had set foot upon the new continent, the colonists had functioned according to the English law and constitution - with legislative assemblies, a representative system of government, and a recognition of the common-law guarantees of personal liberty, But increasingly legislation became American in point of view, and less and less attention was paid to English practices and precedents, Nevertheless, colonial freedom from effective English control was not achieved without conflict, and colonial history abounds in struggles between the assemblies elected by the people and the governors appointed by the King,Still, the colonists were often able to render the royal governors powerless, for, as a rule, governors had "no subsistence but from the Assembly", Governors were sometimes instructed to give profitable offices and land grants to influential colonists to secure their support for royal projects but, as often as not, the colonial officials, once they had secured these emoluments, espoused the popular cause as strongly as ever,The recurring clashes between governor and assembly worked increasingly to awaken the colonists to the divergence between American and English interests, Gradually, the assemblies took over the functions of the governors and their councils, which were made up of colonists selected for their docile support of royal power, and the center of colonial administration shifted from London to the provincial capitals, Early in the 1770s, following the final expulsion of the French from the North American continent, an attempt was made to bring about a drastic change in the relationship between the colonies and the mother country,2, British and French conflictWhile the British had been filling the Atlantic coastal area with farms, plantations, and towns, the French had been planting a different kind of dominion in the St, Lawrence Valley in eastern Canada, Having sent over fewer settlers but more explorers, missionaries, and fur traders, France had taken possession of the Mississippi River and, by a line of forts and trading posts, marked out a great crescent-shaped empire stretching from Quebec in the northeast to New Orleans in the south, Thus they tended to pin the British to the narrow belt east of the Appalachian Mountains,The British had long resisted what they considered "the encroachment of the French," As early as 1613, local clashes occurred between French and English colonists, Eventually, there was organized warfare, the American counterpart of the larger conflict between England and France, Thus, between 1689 and 1697, "King William's War" was fought as the American phase of the European "War of the Palatinate," From 1702 to 1713, "Queen Anne's War" corresponded to the "War of the Spanish Succession," And from 1744 to 1748, "King George's War" paralleled the "War of the Austrian Succession," Though England secured certain advantages from these wars, the struggles were generally indecisive, and France remained in a strong position on the American continent,In the 1750s, the conflict was brought to a final phase, The French, after the Peace of Aix-la-Chapelle in 1748, tightened their hold on the Mississippi Valley, At the same time, the movement of English colonists across the Alleghenies increased in tempo, stimulating a race for physical possession of the same territory, An armed clash in 1754, involving Virginia militiamen under the command of 22-year old George Washington and a band of French regulars, ushered in the "French and Indian War" - with the English and their Indian allies fighting the French and their Indian allies, This was destined to determine once and for all French or English supremacy in North America,Never had there been greater need for action and unity in the British colonies, The French threatened not only the British Empire but the American colonists themselves, for in holding the Mississippi Valley, France could check their westward expansion, The French government of Canada and Louisiana had not only increased in strength but had also in prestige with the Indians, even the Iroquois, the traditional allies of the British, With a new war, every British settler wise in Indian matters knew that drastic measures would be needed to ward off disaster,3, First stirrings of unityAt this juncture, the British Board of Trade, hearing reports of deteriorating relations with the Indians, ordered the governor of New York and commissioners from the other colonies to call a meeting of the Iroquois chiefs to frame a joint treaty, In June 1754, representatives of New York, Pennsylvania, Maryland, and the New England colonies met with the Iroquois at Albany, The Indians aired their grievances, and the delegates recommended appropriate action,The Albany Congress, however, transcended its original purpose of solving Indian problems, It declared a union of the American colonies "absolutely necessary for their preservation," and the colonial representatives present adopted the Albany Plan of Union, Drafted by Benjamin Franklin, the plan provided that a president appointed by the King act with a grand council of delegates chosen by the assemblies, each colony to be represented in proportion to its financial contributions to the general treasury, The government was to have charge of all British interests in the west - Indian treaties, trade, defense, and settlement, But none of the colonies accepted Franklin's plan, for none wished to surrender either the power of taxation or control over the development of the west,The colonies offered little support for the war as a whole, all schemes failing to bring them "to a sense of their duty to the King,"The colonists could see the war only as a struggle for empire on the part of England and France, They felt no compunction when the British government was obliged to send large numbers of regular troops to wage colonial battles, Nor did they regret that the "redcoats," rather than provincial troops, won the war, Nor did they see any reason for curtailing commerce that, in effect, constituted trade with the enemy,In spite of this lack of wholehearted colonial support and in spite of several early military defeats, England's superior strategic position and her competent leadership ultimately brought complete victory, After eight years of conflict, original ugg boots Canada and the upper Mississippi Valley were finally conquered, and the dream of a French empire in North America faded,Having triumphed over France, not only in America but in India and throughout the colonial world generally, Britain was compelled to face a problem that she had hitherto neglected - the governance of her empire, It was essential that she now organize her vast possessions to facilitate defense, reconcile the divergent interests of different areas and peoples, and distribute more evenly the cost of imperial administration,In North America alone, British overseas territories had more than doubled, To the narrow strip along the Atlantic coast had been added the vast expanse of Canada and the territory between the Mississippi River and the Alleghenies, an empire in itself, A population that had been predominantly Protestant English and Anglicized continentals now included Catholic French and large numbers of partly Christianized Indians, Defense and administration of the new territories, as well as the old, would require huge sums of money and increased personnel, The "old colonial system" was obviously inadequate, Even during the exigencies of a war imperiling the very existence of the colonists themselves, the system had proved incapable of securing colonial cooperation or support, What then could be expected in time of peace when no external danger loomed,4, Colonial resistanceClear as was the British need for a new imperial design, the situation in America was anything but favorable to a change, Long accustomed to a large measure of independence, the colonies were demanding more, not less, freedom, particularly now that the French menace had been eliminated, To put a new system into effect, to tighten control, the statesmen of England had to contend with colonists trained to self-government and impatient of interference,One of the first things attempted by the British was to organize the interior, The conquest of Canada and of the Ohio Valley necessitated policies that would not alienate the French and Indian inhabitants, But here the Crown came into conflict with the interests of the colonies, which, fast increasing in population, were bent upon exploiting the newly won territories themselves, Needing new land, various colonies claimed the right to extend their boundaries as far west as the Mississippi River,The British government, fearing that farmers migrating into the new lands would provoke a series of Indian wars, believed that the restive Indians should be given time to settle down and that lands should be opened to colonists on a more gradual basis, In 1763, a royal proclamation reserved all the western territory between the Alleghenies, the Florida, the Mississippi, and Quebec for the use of the Indians, Thus the Crown attempted to sweep away every western land claim of the thirteen colonies and to stop westward expansion, Though never effectively enforced, this measure, in the eyes of the colonists, constituted a highhanded disregard of their most elementary right to occupy and utilize western lands as needed,More serious in its repercussions was the new financial policy of the British government, which needed more money to support the growing empire, Unless the taxpayer in England was to supply it all, the colonies would have to contribute, But revenue could be extracted from the colonies only through a stronger central administration, at the expense of colonial self-government,The first step in inaugurating the new system was the passage of the Sugar Act of 1764, This was designed to raise revenue without regulating trade, In fact, it replaced the Molasses Act of 1733, which had placed a prohibitive duty on the import of rum and molasses from non-English areas, The amended Sugar Act forbade the importation of foreign rum; put a modest duty on molasses from all sources; and levied duties on wines, silks, coffee, and a number of other luxury items, To enforce it, customs officials were ordered to show more energy and strictness, British warships in American waters were instructed to seize smugglers, and "writs of assistance" (blanket warrants) authorized the King's officers to search suspected premises,5, Tax disputeIt was not so much the new duties that caused consternation among New England merchants, It was rather the fact that steps were being taken to enforce them effectively, an entirely new development, For over a generation, New Englanders had been accustomed to importing the larger part of the molasses for their rum distilleries from the French and Dutch West Indies without paying a duty, They now contended that payment of even the small duty imposed would be ruinous,As it happened, the preamble to the Sugar Act gave the colonists an opportunity to rationalize their discontent on constitutional grounds, The power of Parliament to tax colonial commodities for the regulation of trade had long been accepted in theory though not always in practice, but the power to tax "for improving the revenue of this Kingdom," as stated in the Revenue Act of 1764, was new and hence debatable,The constitutional issue became an entering wedge in the great dispute that was finally to wrest the American colonies from England, "One single act of Parliament," wrote James Otis, fiery orator from Massachusetts, "has set more people a-thinking in six months, more than they had done in their whole lives before," Merchants, legislatures, and town meetings protested against the expediency of the law, and colonial lawyers like Samuel Adams found in the preamble the first intimation of "taxation without representation," the catchword that was to draw many to the cause of the American patriots against the mother country,Later in the same year, Parliament enacted a Currency Act "to prevent paper bills of credit hereafter issued in any of His Majesty's colonies from being made legal tender," Since the colonies were a deficit trade area and were constantly short of "hard money," this added a serious burden to the colonial economy, History of American Money equally objectionable from the colonial viewpoint was the Billeting Act, passed in 1765, which required colonies to provide quarters and supplies for royal troops,Strong as was the opposition to these acts, it was the last of the measures inaugurating the new colonial system that sparked organized resistance, Known to history as the "Stamp Act", it provided that revenue stamps be affixed to all newspapers, broadsides, pamphlets, licenses, leases, or other legal documents, the revenue (collected by American agents) to be used for "defending, protecting, and securing" the colonies, The burden seemed so evenly and lightly distributed that the measure passed Parliament with little debate,The violence of the reaction in the thirteen colonies, however, astonished moderate men everywhere, The act aroused the hostility of the most powerful and articulate groups in the population, journalists, lawyers, clergymen, merchants, and businessmen, north and south, east and west, for it bore equally on all sections of the country, Soon leading merchants, whose every bill of lading would be taxed, organized for resistance and formed non-importation associations,Trade with the mother country fell off sharply in the summer of 1765, Prominent men organized as "Sons of Liberty," and political opposition soon flared into rebellion, Inflamed crowds paraded the streets of Boston, From Massachusetts to South Carolina the act was nullified, and mobs, forcing luckless agents to resign their offices, destroyed the hated stamps,Spurred by Patrick Henry, the Virginia Assembly passed a set of resolutions denouncing taxation without representation as a threat to colonial liberties, A few days later, the Massachusetts House invited all the colonies to appoint delegates to a Congress in New York to consider the Stamp Act menace, This Congress, held in October 1765, was the first inter-colonial meeting ever summoned on American initiative, Twenty-seven men from nine colonies seized the opportunity to mobilize colonial opinion against parliamentary interference in American affairs, After much debate, the Congress adopted a set of resolutions asserting that "no taxes ever have been or can be constitutionally imposed on them, but by their respective legislatures" and that the Stamp Act had a "manifest tendency to subvert the rights and liberties of the colonists,"6, Abatement of tax disputesThe issue thus drawn centered on the question of representation, From the colonies' point of view, it was impossible to consider themselves represented in Parliament unless they actually elected members to the House of Commons, But this conflicted with the orthodox English principle of "virtual representation", that is, representation by classes and interests rather than by locality,Most British officials held that Parliament was an imperial body representing and exercising the same authority over the colonies as over the homeland: It could pass laws for Massachusetts as it could for Berkshire in England,The American leaders argued that no "imperial" Parliament existed; their only legal relations were with the Crown, It was the King who had agreed to establish colonies beyond the sea and the King who provided them with governments, That the King was equally a King of England and a King of Massachusetts they agreed, but they also insisted that the English Parliament had no more right to pass laws for Massachusetts than the Massachusetts legislature had to pass laws for England,The British Parliament was unwilling to accept the colonial contentions, British merchants, however, feeling the effects of the American boycott, threw their weight behind a repeal movement, and in 1766 Parliament yielded, repealing the Stamp Act and modifying the Sugar Act, The colonies rejoiced, Colonial merchants gave up the non-importation agreement, the Sons of Liberty subsided, trade resumed its course, peace seemed at hand,But it was only a respite, The year 1767 brought another series of measures that stirred anew all the elements of discord, Charles Townshend, British Chancellor of the Exchequer, was called upon to draft a new fiscal program, Intent upon reducing British taxes by making more efficient the collection of duties levied on American trade, he tightened customs administration, at the same time sponsoring duties on paper, glass, lead, and tea exported from Britain to the colonies,This was designed to raise revenue to be used in part to support colonial governors, judges, customs officers, and the British army in America, Another act suggested by Townshend authorized the superior courts of the colonies to issue writs of assistance, thus giving specific legal authority to the general search warrants already hateful to the colonists,The,agitation following enactment of the Townshend duties was less violent than that stirred by the Stamp Act, but it was nevertheless strong, Merchants once again resorted to non-importation agreements, Men dressed in homespun clothing, women found substitutes for tea, Students used colonial-made paper, Houses went unpainted, In Boston where the mercantile interests here most sensitive to any interference, enforcement of the new regulations provoked violence, When customs officials sought to collect duties, they were set upon by the populace and roughly handled, For this, two regiments were dispatched to protect the customs commissioners,The presence of British troops in Boston was a standing invitation to disorder, On March 5, 1770, after 18 months of resentment, antagonism between citizens and soldiery flared up, What began as a harmless snowballing of the redcoats degenerated into a mob attack, Someone gave the order to fire; three Bostonians lay dead in the snow; and colonial agitators had a valuable issue n their campaign to arouse hostility toward England, Dubbed the Boston Massacre, the incident was dramatically pictured as proof of British heartlessness and tyranny,Faced with such opposition, Parliament in 1770 opted for a strategic retreat and repealed all the Townshend duties except that on tea, The tea tax was retained because, as George III said, there must always be one tax to keep up the right, To most colonists the action of Parliament constituted, in effect, a "redress of grievances," and the campaign against England was largely dropped, An embargo on "English tea" continued but was not too scrupulously observed,Generally, the situation seemed auspicious for imperial relations, Prosperity was increasing and most colonial leaders were willing to let the future take care of itself, Inertia and neglect seemed to succeed where bolder policies had failed, The moderate element, everywhere predominant in the colonies, welcomed this peaceful interlude,7, The Boston "Tea Party"During a three-year interval of calm, a relatively small number of "patriots" or "radicals" strove energetically to keep the controversy alive, As long as the tea tax remained, they contended, the principle of Parliament's right over the colonies remained, And at any time in the future, the principle might be applied in full with devastating effect on colonial liberties,Typical of the patriots was their most effective leader Samuel Adams of Massachusetts, who toiled tirelessly for a single end: independence, From the time he graduated from Harvard College, Adams was a public servant in some capacity-inspector of chimneys, tax-collector, moderator of town meetings, A consistent failure in business, he was shrewd and able in politics, with the New England town meeting the theater of his action,Adam's tools were men: his goal was to win the confidence and support of ordinary people, to free them from awe of their social and political superiors, make them aware of their own importance, and arouse them to action, To do this, he published articles in newspapers and made speeches in town meetings, instigating resolutions appealing to the colonists' democratic impulses,In 1772, he induced the Boston town meeting to select a "committee of correspondence" to state the rights and grievances of the colonists, to communicate with other towns on these matters, and to request them to draft replies, Quickly, the idea spread, Committees were set up in virtually all the colonies, and out of them soon grew a base of effective revolutionary organizations,In 1773, Britain furnished Adams and his co-workers with a desired issue, The powerful East India Company, finding itself in critical financial straits, appealed to the British government and was granted a monopoly on all tea exported to the colonies, Because of the Townshend tea tax, the colonists had boycotted the company's tea and, after 1770, such a flourishing illegal trade existed that perhaps nine-tenths of the tea consumed in America was of foreign origin and imported duty-free,The company decided to sell its tea through its own agents at a price well under the customary one, thus simultaneously making smuggling unprofitable and eliminating the independent colonial merchants, Aroused not only by the loss of the tea trade but also by the monopolistic practice involved, the colonial traders joined the patriots, In virtually all the colonies, steps were taken to prevent the East India Company from executing its design,In ports other than Boston, agents of the company were "persuaded" to resign, and new shipments of tea were either returned to England or warehoused, In Boston, the agents refused to resign and, with the support of the royal governor, preparations were made to land incoming cargoes regardless of opposition, The answer of the patriots, led by Samuel Adams, was violence, On the night of December 16 1773 a band of men disguised as Mohawk Indians boarded three British ships lying at anchor and dumped their tea cargo into the Boston Harbor,8, The British repressionsA crisis now confronted Britain, The East India Company had carried out a parliamentary statute, and if the destruction of the tea went unheeded, Parliament would admit to the world that it had no control over the colonies, Official opinion in Britain almost unanimously condemned the Boston "Tea Party" as an act of vandalism and advocated legal measures to bring the insurgent colonists into line,Parliament responded with new laws-called by the colonists "Coercive Acts," The first one, the Boston Port Bill, which closed the port of Boston until the tea was paid for, threatened the very life of the city, for to exclude Boston from the sea meant economic disaster, Other enactments prescribed appointment by the King of Massachusetts councilors, formerly elected by the colonists; and the summoning of jurors by sheriffs, who were agents of the governor, Hitherto jurors had been chosen in colonial town meetings, Also, the governor's permission would be required for holding town meetings, and the appointment and removal of judges and sheriffs would be in his hands, A Quartering Act required local authorities to find suitable quarters for British troops,The Quebec Act, passed at nearly the same time, extended the boundaries of the province of Quebec and guaranteed the right of the French inhabitants to enjoy religious freedom and their own legal customs, The colonists opposed this act because, disregarding old charter claims to western lands, it threatened to interfere with the westward movement and seemed to hem them in to the north and northwest by a Roman Catholic dominated province, Though the Quebec Act had not been passed as a punitive measure, it was classed by the Americans with the Coercive Acts, and all became known as the "Five Intolerable Acts," These acts, instead of subduing Massachusetts, as they had been planned to do, rallied her sister colonies to her aid,At the suggestion of the Virginia Burgesses, colonial representatives were summoned to meet in Philadelphia on September 5, 1774, "to consult upon the present unhappy state of the Colonies," Delegates to this meeting, known as the first Continental Congress, were chosen by provincial congresses or popular conventions, Every colony except Georgia sent at least one delegate, and the total number of 55 was large enough for diversity of opinion but small enough for genuine debate and effective action,The division of opinion in the colonies posed a genuine dilemma for the Congress: it must give an appearance of firm unanimity to induce the British government to make concessions and, at the same time, it must avoid any show of radicalism or "spirit of independence" that would alarm moderate Americans, A cautious keynote speech, followed by a "resolve" that no obedience was due the Coercive Acts, ended with a Declaration of Rights and Grievances addressed to the people of Great Britain,The most important action taken by the Congress, however, was the formation of an "Association," which provided for the renewal of the trade boycott and for a system of committees to inspect customs entries, publish the names of merchants who violated the agreements, confiscate their imp0rtations, and encourage frugality, economy, and industry,The Association everywhere assumed the leadership, spurring new local organizations to end what remained of royal authority, These intimidated the hesitant into joining the popular movement and punished the hostile, They began the collection of military supplies and the mobilization of troops, And they fanned public opinion into revolutionary ardor,A breach that had been developing slowly among the people widened with the activities of the Association committees, Many Americans, opposed to British encroachment on American rights, favored discussion and compromise as the proper solution, This group included most of those of official rank (Crown-appointed officers), many Quakers and members of other religious sects opposed to the use of violence, many merchants, especially from the middle colonies, and some discontented farmers and frontiersmen from southern colonies, The patriots, on the other hand, drew their support not only from the less well-to-do but from many of the professional class, especially lawyers, most of the great planters of the south, and a number of merchants,While the course of events after the passage of the Coercive Acts left the loyalists appalled and frightened, the King might well have effected an alliance with them and, by timely concessions, so strengthened their position that the patriots would have found it difficult to proceed with hostilities, But George III had no intention of making concessions, In September 1774, scorning a petition by Philadelphia Quakers, he wrote, "The die is now cast, the Colonies must either submit or triumph," This cut the ground from under the loyalists or "Tories," as they were coming to be called,GeneralThomas Gage, an amiable English gentleman with an American-born wife, was in command of the garrison at Boston, where political activity had almost wholly replaced trade, A leading patriot of the town, Dr, Joseph Warren, wrote to an English friend on February 20 1775:"It is not yet too late to accommodate the dispute amicably, but I am of the opinion that if once General Gage should lead his troops into the country with the design to enforce the late acts of Parliament, Great Britain may take her leave, at least of the New England colonies, and if I mistake not, of all America, If there is any wisdom in the nation, God grant it may be speedily called forth!"General Gage's duty was to enforce the Coercive Acts, News reached him that the Massachusetts patriots were collecting powder and military stores at the interior town of Concord, 32 kilometers from Boston, On the night of April 18, 1775, he sent a strong detail of his garrison to confiscate these munitions and to seize Samuel Adams and John Hancock, both of whom had been ordered sent to England to stand trial for their lives, But the whole countryside had been alerted by Paul Revere and two other messengers,When the British troops, after a night of marching, reached the village of Lexington, they saw through the early morning mist a grim band of 50 minutemen - armed colonists - lined up across the common, There was a moment of hesitation, cries and orders from both sides and, in the midst of the noise, a shot, Firing broke out along both lines, and the Americans dispersed, leaving eight of their dead upon the green, The first blood of the war for American independence had been shed,The British pushed on to,Concord, where the "embattled farmers" at North Bridge "fired the shot heard round the world," Their purpose partly accomplished, the British force began the return march, All along the road, behind stone walls, hillocks, and houses militiamen from village and farm made targets of the bright red coats of the British soldiers, By the time the weary column stumbled into Boston its losses totaled nearly three times those sustained by the colonists,9, The congress debates on independenceThe news of,Lexington and,Concord flew from one local community to another in the thirteen colonies, Within 20 days, it evoked a common spirit of American patriotism from Maine, to Georgia,While the alarms of Lexington and Concord were still re-sounding, the Second Continental Congress met in Philadelphia on May 10, 1775, Its president was John Hancock, a wealthy Boston merchant, Benjamin Franklin, who had returned from London, where, as "agent" for several of the colonies, he had vainly sought conciliation, The Congress had barely organized before it was called upon to face the issue of open warfare, Although some opposition was present, the real temper of the Congress was revealed by a stirring declaration of the "Causes and necessity of taking up arms", the joint product of John Dickinson and Jefferson:"Our cause is just, Our union is perfect, Our internal resources are great, and, if necessary, foreign assistance is undoubtedly attainable,,,, The arms we have been compelled by our enemies to assume, we will,,, employ for the preservation of our liberties, being with one mind resolved to die free men rather than live slaves,"Even as the declaration was being debated, Congress took the militia into continental service and appointed Colonel George Washington commander in chief of the American forces, Yet in spite of the military involvement and the appointment of a commander in chief, the idea of complete separation from England was still repugnant to some members of the Congress and to a sizeable portion of the American people, It was obvious, however, that the colonies could not forever remain half in and half out of the British empire,10, The stiffening of resolutionAs the months wore on, the difficulties of prosecuting a war while still part of the British empire became more and more apparent, No compromise came from England, and, on August 23, 1775,,King George issued a proclamation declaring the colonies to be in a state of rebellion,Five months later, Thomas Paine published a 50-page pamphlet, Common Sense, driving home in vigorous style the necessity for independence, Paine, a political theorist who had come to America from England in 1774, even dared to attack the sacred person of the King, ridiculing the idea of hereditary monarchy and declaring that one honest man was worth more to society than "all the crowned ruffians that ever lived," Persuasively he presented the alternatives - continued submission to a tyrannical king and an outworn government or liberty and happiness as a self-sufficient, independent republic, Circulated throughout the colonies, the pamphlet helped to crystallize conviction and to rally the undecided to the cause of separation,There still remained the task of gaining the approval of each colony to a formal declaration of separation, There was common agreement that the Continental Congress should take no such definitive step as independence without first receiving explicit instructions from the colonies, But the Congress daily heard of the establishment of other new extralegal colonial governments and of delegates being authorized to vote for independence, At the same time, the predominance of radicals in the Congress increased as they extended their correspondence, bolstered weak committees, and fired patriot minds with stirring resolutions,Finally, on May 10, 1776, a resolution to "cut the Gordian knot" was adopted, Now only a formal declaration was needed, On June 7, Richard Henry Lee of Virginia introduced a resolution declaring in favor of independence, foreign alliances, and American federation, Immediately, a committee of five, headed by Thomas Jefferson of Virginia, was appointed to prepare a formal declaration "setting forth the causes which impelled us to this mighty resolution,"11, Declaration of IndependenceThe Declaration of Independence, adopted July 4, 1776 - not only announced the birth of a new nation, it also set forth a philosophy of human freedom thenceforth to be a dynamic force in the entire western world, It rested, not upon particular grievances, but upon a broad base of individual liberty that could command general support throughout America, Its political philosophy is explicit:"We hold these truths to be self-evident, that all men are created equal, that they are endowed by their Creator with certain unalienable rights; that among these are life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness, That to secure these rights, governments are instituted among men deriving their just powers from the consent of the governed: that whenever any form of government becomes destructive of these ends, it is the right of the people to alter or to abolish it, and to institute a new government, laying its foundation on such principles, and organizing its powers in such form, as to them shall seem most likely to effect their safety and happiness,"The Declaration of Independence served a purpose far beyond that of a public notice of separation, Its ideas inspired mass fervor for the American cause, for it instilled among ordinary folk a sense of their own importance, inspiring them to struggle for personal freedom, self-government, and a dignified place in society,The Revolutionary War lasted more than six years, with fighting in every colony, Even before the Declaration of Independence, there were military operations that had an important influence on he outcome of the war - for instance, the crushing of the North Carolina loyalists in February of 1776, and in March the forced evacuation of British forces from Boston,For many months after independence was declared, the Americans suffered severe setbacks, The first of these was in New York, In the battle of Long Island, Washington's position became ununtenable, and he executed a masterly retreat in small boats from Brooklyn to the Manhattan shore, The wind held north and the British warships could not come up the East River, Thus British General William Howe lost a chance to deal the American cause a crushing blow, perhaps to end the war,Washington, though constantly driven back, was able to keep his forces fairly intact until the end of the year, Important victories at Trenton and Princeton revived colonial hopes, then once more calamity struck, In September 1777, Howe captured Philadelphia, drove the Congress into flight, and left Washington to winter with his men at Valley Forge,Nevertheless, 1777 also saw the greatest American victory of the war, the military turning point of the Revolution, British General John Burgoyne moved down from Canada with a force designed to gain control of the Lake Champlain-Hudson River line and thus isolate New England from the other colonies, Burgoyne reached the upper Hudson River but, before he could proceed southward, was compelled to wait for supplies until the middle of September,Ignorance of American geography led him to suppose it would be easy for a raiding force to march across the Hampshire Grants (Vermont) down along the Connecticut River and back, collecting horses, cattle, and wagons along the way for the use of his army-all in a matter of two weeks, For this exploit he chose 375 dismounted Hessian dragoons and about 300 Canadians and Indians, They did not even reach the Vermont line, The Vermont militia met them near Bennington, Few of the Hessians ever returned,The Battle of Bennington rallied New England militiamen, and Washington sent reinforcements from the lower Hudson, By the time Burgoyne again put his force in motion, the army of,General Horatio Gates was waiting for him, Led by Benedict Arnold, the Americans twice repulsed the British, Burgoyne fell back to Saratoga, and on October 17, 1777, he surrendered, This decisive blow of the war brought France to the American side,Conclusion: the final victory of the coloniesFrom the time the,Declaration of Independence was signed, France had not been neutral, The government had been eager for reprisal against England ever since the defeat of France in 1763, Moreover, enthusiasm for the American cause was high: the French intellectual world was itself in revolt against feudalism and privilege, Still, though France had welcomed Benjamin Franklin to the French court and had given the United States aid in the form of munitions and supplies, it had been reluctant to risk direct intervention and open war with England,After Burgoyne's surrender, however, Franklin was able to secure treaties of commerce and alliance, Even before this, many French volunteers had sailed to America, The most prominent among them was the Marquis de La Fayette, a young army officer, who, in the winter of 1779-80, went to Versailles and persuaded his government to make a real effort to bring the war to an end, Soon afterward, Louis XVI sent to America an expeditionary force of 6,000 men under the Comte de Rochambeau, In addition, the French fleet aggravated the difficulties the British were having in supplying and reinforcing their forces, and Frenchmen joined with American blockade runners in inflicting severe losses on British commerce,In 1778, the British were forced to evacuate Philadelphia because of threatened action by the French fleet, During the same year, in the Ohio Valley, they suffered a series of setbacks which assured American domination of the northwest, Nevertheless, the British continued to press the war in the south, Early in 1780 they captured Charleston, the principal southern seaport, and overran the Carolina country, The following year they made an effort to conquer Virginia, But the French fleet, which temporarily gained control of American coastal waters that summer, ferried Washington's and Rochambeau's troops in boats down Chesapeake Bay, Their combined armies, totaling 15,000 men, penned in Lord Cornwallis' army of 8,000 at Yorktown on the Virginia coast, On October 19, 1781, Cornwallis surrendered,When the news of the American victory at Yorktown reached Europe, the House of Commons voted to end the war, Peace negotiations began in April 1782 and continued through November, when preliminary treaties were signed, These were not to take effect until France concluded peace with Great Britain, In 1783, they were signed as final and definitive, The,peace settlement acknowledged the independence, freedom, and sovereignty of the 13 states, to which it granted the much coveted territory west to the Mississippi, and set the northern boundary of the nation nearly as it runs now, The Congress was to recommend to the states that they restore the confiscated property of the loyalists,Bibliography 1, Billias, George Athan, ed, The American Revolution: How Revolutionary Was It, New York: Holt Rinehart, and Winston, Inc,, 1990,2, Beard, Charles A, and Mary, Basic History of the United States, New York: Doubleday, Doran, and Company, 1944,3, Eliot, George Fielding, American Revolution, Microsoft Encarta CD-ROM 1997Hafstadter, The United States, 4th Ed, 74, 76-77, 80,4,, Brinton, Crane, The Anatomy of Revolution, Vintage Books: New York, 19655, Greene, Jack P, The American Revolution, Its Character and Limits, New York University Press: New York, 1987,6, Miller, John C, Origins of the American Revolution, Stanford University Press: Stanford, 1959,7, Thomas, Peter D,G, Tea Party to Independence: The Third Phase of the American Revolution, 1773-1776, Clarendon Press: Oxford, 1991,8, Olsen, Keith W,, et al, An Outline of American History, As reprinted on the Internet let,rug,nl/~usa/H/, Tsar Simeon

  s group in Sri Lanka, This party asserted its socialist policies in its declaration seeking changes in the fundamental structure of society, The women of these organisations continued to take part in active politics as members of parliament and cabinet ministers, ,At the grass-roots level, constitutional provisions have ensured reservation for women cheap ugg boots salein India, Bangladesh and Nepal, In India, there is a 33 per cent reservation for women through direct elections to panchayats or local-level self-governance institutions that function in almost every State, At the local level, the new ordinance of 1997, which ensured a 20 per cent reservation of seats for women, has been a breakthrough, and has contributed to the increased participation of women in local elected bodies, One seat is reserved for women in each ward of the Village Development Committee, The new ordinance forced all political parties to support at least one female candidate, This fact encouraged women to get more involved in political activities in Nepal,, About 40,000 female candidates were elected in the local elections of 1997, This provision has increased the numerical involvement of women in the local government units, However, their involvement in positions of decision-making and influence is insignificant, Overall, a strong male domination prevails, The long history of struggles in South Asia--from womenC and nevertheless decided to keep the intelligence a secret, Over the duration of the Holocaust, an estimated 11 to 17 thousand people, including 6 million Jews, perished in slave-labor and concentration camps,After the Japanese bombing of Pearl Harbor finally catapulted America into the fray, over a million African-Americans reported for duty, Since their sacrifice was not considered on-par with that of their white counterparts, black servicemen were frequently relegated to menial positions that segregated them from other soldiers, In fact, Nazi POWs were often allowed to dine with white US soldiers from whose company blacks were excluded, This sad state of American civil rights prompted some blacks to defy the draft board by using racial stereotypes to their advantage, Malcolm X, for example, enthusiastically expressed a desire to s leaders on women or "natural law" is an exercise in futility in a fallen world, The Founding Fathers opened the door for their posterity to arbitrarily reinterpret the vague social contract articulated by John Locke,, As our current desperate plight indicates, the Constitution cannot shield us from social, economic, and political devolution, <b>For More Information</b> Irish Potato Famine The Irish potato famine, which occurred in the early 19th Century, impacted a lot the entire work of authorship in Ireland, Basically, many Irish authors have found it important to explore their country's history by expounding on various historic phenomena which happened in their country, As it has been revealed, the Great Irish Famine, also referred to as Irish Potato Famine, has generally contributed to the development of historical writing by providing various writers with a subject to express in their writings, This has been found to spring from the development of literatures, history, agriculture and technology among others, This paper presents the various issues brought out by the Irish Potato Famine and their ultimate influence on the Irish authors, by expounding on the various contributors towards their motivation in writing (Cormac 25-109),It is important to ugg boots sale uk note that, History provides a basis for postulating future trends of events by considering on various factors which contributed to cheap ugg boots uk a certain event, Considering the history of the Irish Potato Famine, various writers from Ireland have found it important to express their art of writing by writing on its particular causes and the factors which underlie it development, As it is reported by various writers about the bushido

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  it is the O2 Arena that helps Bond reach a hot air balloon in the move un voyage fait par ordre du roi Connell launched the Catholic Association to campaign for Catholic Emancipation which was largely achieved by 1829, Maasai and Zulu tribes: The Real face of Africa Africa has long been considered home of the origin of mankind, with historians digging up for more information for evidence every time, For many years, the traditions and customs of many different African tribes have stood up up-to-date though western influence has had a lot of impacts, Yet, the Maasai tribe of East Africa and the Zulu tribe of South Africa, though different as many perceive them; have maintained and kept their traditions and customs intact even with pressures to conform to the global setting, Internationally, the Maasai and Zulu tribes are the best known and famous tribes in Africa, However, close observation of these traditions when compared reveal that many changes have occurred due to the influence of globalization, Yet, their cultures stand out as the most compact in the African setting, Interestingly, though from different parts of Africa, the Maasai and the Zulu have similarities in their behaviors and customs and they have fiercely fought to protect their cultures, giving us a great picture of Africa,Despite the pressure from the international community to conform to the global codes of behavior, the Maasai culture remains one of the most intact and colorful in Eastern Africa, Due to their distinctive customs and dressing style and their residence near game reserves in East Africa, they are the most well-known African tribe worldwide, In fact, the roles of the males and females remain distinct as they were a century ago with men playing the breadwinner role whereas women remain housewives taking care of household chores, The maasai's are pastoralists who roam all over the countries looking for water and pasture throughout the year, They believe that they own all cattle in the world, To them, wealth is measured in terms of the number of heads of cattle one has together with the number of children, Moreover, the more the wives one has, the more the wealth, Their houses are constructed for temporary use and are made of cow dung and are grass-thatched, In both Kenya and Tanzania, they are the only ethnic group allowed to cross over the countries' boundaries without restrictions, In addition to this, they dress uniquely in red colored sheets and beads, This dressing style is very distinct from all the other tribes in East Africa, Piercing their ears is a very common behavior practiced during the early age, buy cheap uggs Informal teaching is the form of education the young generation is accorded; which basically deals with preserving their traditions and ones roles as a member of the community, Music and dancing forms the core of initiation period and their dancing style is characterized by jumping up and doing and going round in a circle and is usually preserved for the youth, The elders are in charge of the daily administrative duties led by warrior leader who also acts as the tribe's god, As a cheap ugg boots uk matter of fact, though threatened by the western culture, the Maasai traditions stand out as the most ugg boots sale intact in Africa,Just like the Maasai tribe, the Zulu tribe has traditions that continue to color the traditional image of Africa in the international arena, Their dressing code which also includes colorful beads has made them a famous tribe, Likewise, the Zulu roles are well defined with the men taking the head of family and the women being the housewives, In addition, the men are polygamous and their rank in the society is determined by the number of children one possesses, Cattle keeping is also one of their practices, However, unlike the maasai, they also do farming and the number of heads of cattle is comparatively smaller compared to the Maasai's, Therefore, they do not move from place to place but instead live as a community in one place, Zulu women are very good in African art designing which is mostly composed of beads, and this tradition has attracted thousands of tourists in South Africa, Elders are endowed with the decision making responsibility on behalf of the community and unlike the Maasai, they have a King who is highly respected and possesses a lot of power, Moreover, education is informal and is based on the teachings about the traditions and customs of the tribe although formal education is attracting many of the Zulu's to formal schooling system in South Africa, Their music and dancing style forms a greater part of the social activities and is characterized by shaking energetically especially the belly dance, Their traditional houses are semi-permanent made of mad and pieces of wood unlike the maasai ones which are temporary and made of cow dung, As evident with the Maasai's, the traditions and customs of the Zulu still standout in Africa,To sum up, a comparison of Maasai and Zulu traditions indicates that African culture still remains colorful, A common aspect is that of keeping cattle though the number of cattle and the system of rearing them depends with tribe, The Maasai move from one place to another in search of water and pasture while the Zulu confine their herd in one field, The dressing styles still remain very traditional within the different tribes with colorful wears being the order of the day, But the different ways of dressing are clearly evident with Maasai dressing in red sheets while the Zulu have beads forming their wear, Elders play a great role in administering rules and ensuring harmony and justice, Whereas the Maasai are led by a warrior who is also their god, the Zulu are led by a king, Women roles are similar and mostly limited to household duties together with bringing up children, In this polygamous setting, each woman has her own hut where the husband would visit time and again, The commonness in music and dance is also a clear-cut similarity, Maasai young men mostly do the dancing as compared to the Zulu belly dance which is seen widely as a female's preserve, And despite the influence from other cultures especially the western culture, the African image is still being protected by these tribes Battle of Bull Run s first multi-racial elections in April 1994, with the ANC winning sixty-two percent of the vote, On 10 May 1994, Mandela was inaugurated as South Africaun voyage fait par ordre du roi

  s sons were feasting with their friends, Then all of them went to Collatius house where they found Lucretia surrounded by her maids and spinning wool, But the beauty and virtue of Lucretia infatuated Sextus with an insane passion, Some days after their visit he came to Lucretias skills to be efficient candidates and managers in governance, both locally and nationally, There is need to develop a system to provide women with information, Women also have to be taught to overcome the psychology of subordination, of being portrayed as victimised and helpless, and not be content with being guided by men, In all these countries, the training programmes on women in politics were received with great enthusiasm, despite the hurdles the women faced in getting to attend them, The women are fully aware of the importance of knowledge and skills to fulfil their new roles, and, in many instances, are creating new leadership models, The Top Five U, S, Presidents Deciding on who the top ten Presidents are is certainly no easy task, Each of the U,S presidents of this country served their nation as best as they could, Each president was presented with different tasks and challenges depending on which time period and social condition they found themselves serving as president under,The easiest President to choose as one of the top five Presidents is George Washington, As the first President of the United States, George Washington served from 1789-1797, Washington was one of the most significant contributors to the formation of our Constitution, and he remains as the only U,S, President to ever be voted for President unanimously by the people, not once, but for both of his terms, Although the people wanted Washington to serve another term in 1797, he refused, relinquishing the post and passing the torch to the next President, This special man's faith, patriotic beliefs and his valiant actions formed the very foundation of one of the greatest democratic nations on earth, Abraham Lincoln, the President recognized by the stunning Lincoln Memorial, was president from 1861-1865, President Lincoln served during one of the most difficult times in our country - the Civil War, Lincoln's stance against the decision of Southern States to attempt to break from the union and his willingness to use force ended up maintaining the Union and keeping the country whole, History would show that, almost as significantly, his strong hand also ended slavery and helped free countless slaves from the clutches of a terrible fate in the South, One of the most famous and moving speeches of our Nation was Lincoln's Gettysburg Address at the dedication of the Soldiers' National Cemetery in Gettysburg, PA in 1863,President Roosevelt was yet another President who led a troubled nation battling against an evil enemy during World War II, He served as president from 1933-1945, and he also helped carry the nation through to the end of the Great Depression in 1933, Roosevelt created the "New Deal," which served as a catalyst to pull the country out of its deep Depression, He also created the Social Security Act, which continues to offer all Americans peace of mind as they enter their older years and leave the workforce for retirement, Roosevelt's leadership came out clearly during each of these difficult periods for the country, and in the end it was his leadership that helped make the nation much more secure in the long run,President Harry Truman was another wartime president that proved his worth in handling the end of WWII and its aftermath, He was president from 1945 through 1953, He made the difficult decision to order the atomic bombings against Japan at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, As the United States left WWII and entered into the Cold War, President Truman's leadership set the Nation on a strong and positive course into the future,Woodrow Wilson, another wartime president, saw the United States through World War I, He served as president from 1913 through 1921, America was successful in WWI thanks to his skillful leadership and diplomacy, and his part in the Treaty of Versailles which ended the First World War Additionally he greatly improved the nation through the Federal Reserve Act, the Federal Trace Commission Act, and the Clayton Antitrust Act, As a testament to his life, Woodrow Wilson won the Nobel Peace Prize in 1919,This list only includes five of the country's great presidents - there were surely many more men who proved themselves in the highest office of the nation, But these five are perfect examples of the type of person the people of this nation look for when they consider candidates for the United States Presidency, They are certainly very big shoes to fill,Please visit ListofPresidents for a great list of resources about United States Presidents! Symbol Of Freedom The American banderole is a attribute of abandon and cede for United States citizens, Although we about account bolt versions of this civic emblem, it can be annihilation that the eyewitness acknowledges, Therefore, a Christmas timberline adorned in red, white, and dejected could be advised an American Flag, Examples can be fabricated from australia ugg sale uk any actual or placed on any object, The adverse contest of September 11th adored a aback of bellicism aural the United States, The aftereffect has been a admiration to affectation the American banderole in foreground of homes, appointment buildings, and everywhere possible,The celebrated account of Betsy Ross agilely bed-making the aboriginal American banderole is broadly known, However, abounding of the data of that amazing event, forth with the affairs arch up to it accept been overlooked, To activate with, the colonies had adopted several flags as a representation of their new American Peace Sign beliefs, The "Don't Tread on Me" adaptation congenital red and white stripes with a snake beyond it, A accepted advantage acclimated by George Washington, which adumbrated the affinity of the colonies, was agnate to the British emblem, Washington aloft this accurate adaptation at Prospect Hill, The Loyalists misinterpreted the adumbration as a assurance of defeat,The abashing that ensued prompted General George Washington, Colonel George Ross, and Robert Morris, forth with added key associates of the Congressional Committee, to admit the aid of Mrs, Ross, At the time Betsy Ross was active an upholstery business, She had completed several assignments for General Washington, and he was accustomed with her work, as able-bodied as getting a claimed friend, They provided her with a awkward Smiley Face cartoon of the appointed American banderole and commissioned her to complete the work, She began the appointment in aboriginal May and completed the job in backward May or aboriginal June,The American banderole was aloft on July 4, 1776 to admire the bearing of a new nation, Independence Day offers all United States citizens an befalling to bethink the hardships that our antecedents endured to accretion our freedom, The American banderole has been an afflatus to citizens of the United States, aback its inception, Francis Scott Key composed our civic anthem, The Star Spangled Banner, afterwards his abatement at seeing the American banderole aerial at aurora afterward a barbarous battle, during the War of 1812, The allegorical adopting of this civic attribute has apparent added moments in United States history, Soldier's aerial the "Colors" to announce achievement and assurance afterwards the Action of Iwo Jima; in the aforementioned way, the aboriginal astronauts to airing on the moon placed "Old Glory" aural its arenaceous surface,This blazon of bellicism waned in the backward 20th century, but was brought aback afterwards tragedy absorbed our nation on September 11, 2001, American Flag is acceptable a hot article and announcement "Old Glory" should be conducted with dignity, Afterwards that alarming day, citizens rose up and began announcement "Old Glory" throughout the land, A admiration to bolster this newfound pride meant individuals capital to accumulate the affectation up 24 hours a day, In adjustment to advance respect, the Colors have to be appropriately illuminated, A History of Irish-americans Irish Americans number over forty-four million, twelve percent of the total American population, the only larger ethnic group are German-Americans, The largest Irish-American communities are in Chicago, Boston, New York City, Baltimore, Philadelphia, Kansas City and Savannah, Georgia, Irish people and been emigrating in considerable numbers to the States since the 1760s, however it was during and after the Great Famine of the 1840s that literally millions sailed west across the Atlantic, After 1860, Irish immigration into America continued with family reunification attracting people into the major cities where Irish ghettos were established, They were hired by Irish labour contractors to work in labour cheap ugg boots gangs on the railroads, streets and other construction projects, Irish men also found employment in the police departments, fire departments, Many departments maintain large 'Emerald Societies', bagpipe marching bands or other units demonstrating their Irish heritage, A large number of Irish Catholic women took jobs as maids in middle class households and hotels, Although they started very low on the social scale, by 1900 they had improved themselves and were on a par with the average wage, After 1945, they began to enter the higher ranks of the social hierarchy, this was especially a result of their high rate of college attendance, The annual celebration of St, Patrick's Day is the most widely recognised symbol of the Irish in America when all things Irish are celebrated, the New York parade attracts upwards of two million people, According to the latest census, the Irish language ranks sixty-sixth out of the three hundred and twenty two languages spoken today in the U,S,, with over twenty-five thousand speakers, , Russell Shortt is a travel consultant with Exploring Ireland, the leading specialists in customised, private escorted tours, escorted coach tours and independent self drive tours of Ireland, Article source: exploringireland Did Hitler have a Nuclear Weapon Did Hitler have a Nuclear Weapon,Copyright (c) Dereck Sowler 2011There is no doubt that Nazi Germany spent a lot of time, effort and money on creating technologically superior weapons to that of the Allies, during World War 2, In fact, they started this process well before the war began, as is evident of the initial superiority of the Tiger Tank and the Messerschmitt Me109 fighter,,,, But what super secrets were Nazi scientists working on, It became clear after Germany surrendered that plans for the Jet engine Frank Whittle created had been stolen by Germany as these plans were found in research labs all over Germany, So what else where they up to,,,, Albert Einstein sent a letter to President Franklin D, Roosevelt of the United States of America on August 2nd 1939, outlining his fears that the Nazi's were developing a nuclear weapon, He pointed out that Germany had recently taken control of Uranium mines in Czechoslovakia and stopped the sale of the ore, A clear indication that the Nazis wanted the ore for themselves, Uranium is five hundred times more common in the Earth's crust than gold, It can be found almost everywhere in rock, rivers, oceans and soil, But the trick is to find enough of it and to find U235 which is the only Uranium that is fissile, i,e,, it can sustain a fission chain reaction, which is what you need if you want an Atomic Bomb to go off and destroy a large number of people, buildings and infrastructure, Ironically, some of the best minds of the day were actually German Jews who had escaped Nazi Germany before the war started, These men and women contributed significantly to the Allied effort, The Manhattan Project, to create the first Nuclear Bomb,,,, But did Hitler actually get there first,,,, German historian Rainer Karlsch wrote a book in 2005 suggesting that the Nazis actually tested a Nuclear weapon near the small town of Ohrdruf in Germany, This is disputed by some historians but others have pointed to limited evidence,,,, However, what is not in dispute is the fact that the Nazi's were developing experimental aircraft and one of them had stealth capabilities, The Horten 229, or Ho 229, was developed by the Nazis, but Germany surrendered before it could go into mass production, The Americans, during Operation Paperclip, found the site where the Ho 229 was being developed, Parts and Blueprints were shipped to America after the war for analysis, Recently the same company that makes the USAF B2 stealth bomber built a replica of the Ho 229, Amazingly, during tests, they discovered that flying at a few dozen feet above the English Channel the Radar stations of the time would not have detected the aircraft, It could have slipped past the RAF and dropped a Nuclear Bomb on London,,,, So, if the war had continued for another year or so, would the outcome have been very different, According to many historians it would, The Nazi's may have beaten the Allies to create the first Atomic Bomb as fictional books such as Operation Werwolf tell and they may have won the war with it, If so, the world would have been a very different place, Osama bin Laden - What Do we Know About Him, The Islamic fundamentalist leader Osama bin Laden (born 1957), a harsh critic of the United States and its policies, is widely believed to have orchestrated the 1998 bombings of two U,S, embassies in East Africa, as well as the October 2000 attack on the USS Cole in the Yemeni port of Aden,But it is his role as the apparent mastermind of the September 11, 2001 attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon that had made bin Laden one of the most infamous and sought-after figures in recent history,Bin Laden's hatred for America had become well known, but nothing had prepared Americans for the most extravagant and heinous plot allegedly hatched by the terrorist leader: the September 11, 2001, attacks on the World Trade Center and the Pentagon, On the clear, late-summer morning, two hijacked commercial jets flew into the twin towers of the World Trade Center, About an hour later, another hijacked airliner slammed into the Pentagon in the nation's capital, A fourth hijacked jet did not reach its target, crashing in Western Pennsylvania instead, When the massive towers collapsed in flames, thousands perished, Among those lost in New York, Washington, D,C,, and Pennsylvania were the 19 hijackers, most of whom had been linked to Al Qaeda operations, Bin Laden denied involvement in the attacks, but he praised the hijackers for their acts,The U,S, government nevertheless regarded the terrorist leader as their prime suspect, U,S, President at that time, George W, Bush demanded that Afghanistan's Taliban government turn him over or face war, but to no avail, In early October 2001, U,S, forces began striking Afghan targets, declaring a war on terrorism and on the countries that harbor terrorists,What do we know about Osama bin Laden, What does the name Besides deep diving explorations, ancient submerged structures have also been discovered from space, Space NASA satellite images have revealed a mysterious ancient bridge in the Palk Strait between India and Sri Lanka, The bridge has been named Adam were massacred by the German troops,Soon afterwards the Emperor went to the great church of Milan to worship, As he was entering, the Bishop, Ambrose, appeared and stopped him, A man who was pol-luted with the blood of so many people, said Ambrose, might not take Holy Communion even if he were the Emperor, Theodosius must publicly admit his guilt 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  C A Brief History for the Civil War Reenactor Normal 0 What is commonly known as the first major Civil War battle was fought on July 21st, 1861, In the north the battle would be known as the 1st Battle of Bull Run and the 1st Manassas Battle in the south, The Union Army General, Irvin McDowell, as well as the politicians in Washington, felt that this battle, with a quick win by the Union would lead to an early end of the war, As it turned out they had highly under estimated the determination and tenacity of the Confederate Army in general and General Pierre Beauregard in particular, Having been battle seasoned at Ft, Sumpter, Beauregard counted on a decisive victory that he thought would bring peace as well, He and his soldiers did have their victory, but it would be far from being the end of the war, The Confederate and Union Armies were each split into three major battle commands, Beauregard, with 20,000 troops, was dug in near Manassas Junction on Bull Run Creek and 30,000 men under McDowell were situated along the Potomac River, Union General Robert Patterson had 18,000 men at Harpers Ferry and greatly out numbered Confederate General Joseph Johnson with 12,000 soldiers under his command, At Fort Monroe, Virginia General cheap uggs John Magruder pinned down Union General Benjamin Butler and his 10,000 troops with a much smaller Confederate contingency, Leaving Washing on July 16th, McDowell's army with his largely inexperienced soldiers and a large and cumbersome supply train headed for Manassas Junction, The untrained and undisciplined army didn't arrive at Manassas Junction until July 18th, As soon as they arrived McDowell deployed scouts to recon the enemy forces but they were beaten back, and suffered the Unions first small but demoralizing defeat, by a small group of Confederate forces, McDowell planed to have Patterson keep General Johnson at bay at Harpers Ferry, giving him a large advantage in troop numbers against Beauregard's forces, Early on in the battle it looked like the Union forces would see victory due to this advantage of a larger force and the confidence coming from having won several small clashes in their drive for Henry House Hill, When Johnson and his men were able to get around the Patterson forces and come to the rescue of General Beauregard the advantage turned, The formidable fighting skills and determination of the Confederate soldiers caused General McDowell to issue an order for retreat, What was supposed to be an orderly retreat turned into a rout, with Union officers deserting their men and the soldiers running for their lives, The large supply train was left in a jumbled trail behind the fleeing army, Sightseeing civilians, having followed the Union Army down from Washington and gathered on surrounding hilltops, made the rout even more chaotic, This 1st battle of a divided country claimed approximately 5,000 casualties and includes the missing, wounded and dead civilians as well, The Confederacy had sent a message to Washington that there would be no quick and easy victory in the war, The Battle of Bull Run as a Civil War reenactment is a favorite of modern day southerners who dust off their reproduction civil war weapons, put on Confederate uniforms and raise the Confederate flag, Unlike most other Civil War battles with yearly reenactments this first meeting of Union and Confederate forces is reenacted every five years, Ask America why there are TWO Koreas fighting and killing! Ask America why there are TWO Koreas Fighting and Killing!By YoonOk KimDo you know why we have two Koreas~~~North Korea and South Korea,As a South Korean national living in America~~~and a citizen of our mother earth, my dream is to see 'No more wars' and 'No more war weapon companies',, We all are here,to be loved and to love,,Everyone wants to be happy, peace and healing, But, we are in a constant state of war in the massive killing of innocent people~~~ having countless expenses on war and the military,I am saddened by the fact that North Korea and South Korea have endless conflict and fighting~~~and the war still continues~~~and the killing still continues over 60 years,,Do you know how we have two Koreas,I would like to take all of you to the year~~~1945!The 36 years of the Japanese Occupation of Korea (1910-1945) impacted on Korea very negatively and brutally,, As Koreans, it was very difficult to survive, Thousands of Koreans, including several members of my extended family, were raped, tortured and slaughtered by the Japanese until America ended the war with the dropping of the two atomic bombs,Japanese settlers residing in Korea called my father and our family "Poop Race" or "Sub-Human"~~~ without regret, they can slice live human beings while victims are still alive and screaming,,~~~ without admission of guilt, Japanese justify these brutal actions of murdering and slaughtering by labeling those they torture and kill as "Sub-Human",~~~ without sorrow, Japanese can call live human body as stressed concepts such as loyalty to oneC 15 March 1891) was born at Hill Lodge, Clay Hill, Enfield, London, England, In 1858, the year of the Great Stink, the British Parliament passed an enabling act, in spite of the colossal expense of the project, and Bazalgette's proposals to revolutionise London's sewerage system began to be implemented, This was the largest engineering project of the 19th Century,He began his career working on railway projects, articled to noted engineer Sir John Macneill and gaining sufficient experience in land drainage and reclamation works for him to set up his own London consulting practice in 1842, By the time he married, in 1845, Bazalgette was deeply involved in the expansion of the railway network, working so hard that he suffered a nervous breakdown two years later,As Civil Engineer and Chief Engineer of the London Metropolitan Board of Works his major achievement was the creation in response to "The great stink" of 1858 which caused Parliament to finally create the world's largest Sewer complex and underground sewer tunnels and the cleaning of the River thames,Championed by fellow engineer Isambaard Kingdom Brunel, Bazalgette was appointed chief engineer of the London Metropolitan Board of Works, in 1856 (a post he retained until the MBW was abolished and replaced by the london County Council in 1889), In 1858, the year of the Great Stink, Parliament passed an enabling act, in spite of the colossal expense of the project, and Bazalgette's proposals to revolutionise London's sewerage system began to be implemented, The expectation was that enclosed sewers would eliminate the stink ('miasma'), and that this would then reduce the incidence of cholera,Joseph Bazalgette Civil Engineer and Chief Engineer of the London Metropolitan Board of Works, was given responsibility for the work, He designed an extensive underground sewerage system that diverted waste to the Thames Estuary, downstream of the main centre of population, Six main interceptory sewers, totalling almost 100 miles (160 km) in length, were constructed, some incorporating stretches of London's Lost Rivers, Three of these sewers were north of the river, the southernmost, low-level one being incorporated in the Thames Embankment, The Embankment also allowed new roads to reduce traffic congestion, new public gardens, and the Circle Line of the London Underground,The intercepting sewers, constructed between 1859 and 1865, were fed by 450 miles (720 km) of main sewers that, in turn, conveyed the contents of some 13,000 miles (21,000 km) of smaller local sewers, Construction of the interceptor system required 318 million bricks, 2,7 million cubic metres of excavated earth and 670,000 cubic metres of Concrete, Gravity allows the sewage to flow eastwards, but in places such as Chelsea, Deptford and Abbey Mills pumping stations were built to raise the water and provide sufficient flow, Sewers north of the Thames feed into the Northern Outfall Sewer, which feeds into a major treatment works at Beckton, South of the river, the Southern Outfall Sewer extends to a similar facility at Crossness,During the 20th century, major improvements were made to the sewerage system and to the Sewage treatment provision to substantially reduce pollution of the Thames Estuary and the North Sea,Please discount uggs uk visit my Funny Animal Art Prints Collection @ fabprints My other website is called Directory of British Icons: fabprints,webs The Chinese call Britain 'The Island of Hero's' which I think sums up what we British are all about, We British are inquisitive and competitive and are always looking over the horizon to the next adventure and discovery, Copyright , 2010 Paul Hussey, All Rights Reserved, Irish Mythology - the Story of Deirdre Deirdre led a tragic life and became known as Deirdre of the Sorrows, She was the daughter of Felim MacDall, an Ulster chieftain, a druid named Cathbad had prophesised that she would be the most beautiful woman in Ireland but her beauty would cause kings to got o war, On hearing the prophecy, the King of Ulster, Conchobar mac Nessa wanted her for himself, he had her brought up in seclusion by a wise, old woman named Leabharcham until she would be old enough to marry, However, Deirdre fell in love with a young warrior named Naoise and they fled with his two brothers Ainle and Ardan to Scotland, They were plagued throughout Scotland by kings who desired Deirdre for themselves, finally they found sanctuary on the a remote island, Concobhar sent Fergus mac Roich as a peace envoy to tell the refugees that it was safe to return home, When they arrived, Concobhar sent spies to see if Deirdre was as beautiful as before, when he discovered she had lost none of her beauty he decided that he again wanted her for himself, Concobhar raided the fort at Emain Macha (Navan Fort) taking Deirdre and killing Naoise, Ainle and Ardan, Concobhar forced her to marry him but although he possessed her body, she gave him nothing else, He realised that she would ever love him so he gave her away to one of his warriors, Eoghan MacDurthacht, Deirdre committed suicide by hanging out of MacDurtachtC as all good traders must be Doctor Who' and

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  this is that, AND THAT ONLY, which did or could give beginning to any lawful governments Pakistan and Bangladesh, Indian womenThe LiberatorC343,BC the,Thirtieth Dynasty,ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of,Nectanebo II, A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the,Thirty-First Dynasty, began in 343,BC, but shortly after, in 332,BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to,Alexander the Great,without a fight,[56]10) Ptolemaic Dynasty 332 BC-30 BC In,332 BCAlexander the Great,conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer, The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Ptolemies, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new,capital city,of,Alexandria, The city was to showcase the power and prestige of Greek rule, and became a,seat of learning,and culture, centered at the famous,Library of Alexandria,,The,Lighthouse of Alexandria,lit the way for the many ships which kept trade flowing through the city, as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority, Greek culture,did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace, They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs, Some traditions merged, as Greek and,Egyptian gods,were,syncretized,into composite deities, such as Serapis, and,classical Greek,forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs, Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria which had formed following the death of,Ptolemy IV,,In addition, as,Rome,relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country, Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syrian opponents made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire,11) Roman dominationEgypt became a province of the,Roman Empire,in 30,BC, following the defeat of,Marc Antony,and,Ptolemaic,Queen,Cleopatra VII,by,Octavian,(later Emperor,Augustus) in the,Battle of Actium, The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the,Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period,,Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome, Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued,,The art of,mummy portraiture,flourished, and some of the Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had, The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship,Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native,Egyptians, From the mid-first century AD,,Christianity,took root in Alexandria as it was seen as another cult that could be accepted, However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from,paganism,and threatened the popular religious traditions, This led to persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of,Diocletian,starting in 303 AD, but eventually Christianity won out,,In 391 AD the Christian EmperorTheodosius,introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples,,Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed,,As a consequence, Egypt's pagan culture was continually in decline, While the native population continued to speak,their language, the ability to read,hieroglyphic writing,slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished, The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert,For more historical summaries and outlines please see other articles by Dr Simon Harding chronosconsulting biblon Irish Mythology - the Legend of Diarmuid and Grainne Grainne, daughter of the High King Cormac Mac Airt was believed to me the most beautiful, desirable and worthiest of women in all of Ireland, Her father gave her hand in marriage to Ireland's greatest warrior Fionn Mac Cumhaill, however at their betrothal feast Grainne became distressed that Fionn was older than her father and fell in love with one of Fionn's men named Diarmuid (who had a love spot on his forehead that made him irresistible to all women), Grainne laced all the wine with a sleeping potion which was served to all the guests and encouraged Diarmuid to run away with her, Diarmuid, out of loyalty to his leader at first refused but Grainne wasn't taking no for an answer, she threatened Diarmuid with a geis (a curse), he relented and they fled, Fionn immediately went in pursuit of them, they managed to evade him several times with the help of the some members of the Fianna and Diarmuid's foster father Aengus Og, Diarmuid eaten up with remorse refused for a long time to sleep with Grainne, spurning her to tease him terribly, once exclaiming that the water splashing on her legs was more adventurous than him, Eventually, Aengus Og negotiated peace with Fionn and the pursued lovers settled in County Sligo and had five children, Fionn married Grainne's sister but was still very bitter over the betrayal of Diarmuid and Grainne, Fionn organised a boar hunt near Ben Bulben where Diarmuid was mortally wounded by a wild boar, Fionn had the power to save him by letting him drink water from his hands but he let the water slip through them and Diarmuid died, Russell Shortt is a travel consultant with Exploring Ireland, the leading specialists in customised, private escorted tours, escorted coach tours and independent self drive tours of Ireland, Article source: exploringireland The role of Probation Service In order to look at the roles played by probation service, it is of importance to know what probation service is, According to Newburn, T, (2007), probation service is an organization within the Department of Justice and Law Reform, It is of great importance to note that, this agency plays an important role of helping in the reduction of crime levels and at the same time enhances community safety, It should be noted that, this is done by the agency cooperating with criminals in the attempt of changing their conducts and repairing the harm that was dome by crime, In this case, this agency assesses and manages criminals in the community, As indicated by Newburn, T, (2007), probation officers play the role of supervising criminals who have already been released from prisons in order to reduce the rates of recidivism, On the other hand, probation officers have the duty of proposing sentencing in the courts of law within the criminal justice systems (Akers 1999),It is of importance to note that, a probation officer performs duties assigned by the court to him/her, On this basis, the most common duties performed by the probation officers are to supervise criminals who have been declared to be on probation by the court, Additionally, the probation service includes the investigation done on criminals' history before sentencing the criminal in order to determine their past life in crime, As a result of their work, the probation officers are supposed to have excellent communication skills in order to perform their duties competently, It should be noted that, before a criminal is sentenced, his past history in crime is studied so that the legal systems may be excellent in making their judgment, Further, in some states the probation departments have surveillance officers who posses the full authority of a probation officer, In this relation, these officers are termed as the eyes and ears of the probation team in matters concerning supervision of criminals after release, On this basis, they roles include carrying out most of the field work in supervising criminals on how they are carrying out their daily activities, they have the authority to arrest a criminal or conduct a search in cases where a criminal is suspected, and unsystematic home and work visits, It should be noted that, the surveillance officers in the department of probation service performs the role of field work while the probation officer does much of his/her work in the office (Steinberg 2009),Carrabine, E, et al, (2009) suggested that, probation is one of the techniques used by the disciplinary system in the protection of the community in the attempt of instructing the attorney and corrects the misconducts of the attorney, On this basis, the probation service has the role of looking at the records of criminals and deciding which sentence is appropriate to them, It is of importance to note that, a person may be put in probation before being sentenced in order for the court to supervise him/her, On this basis, the results of the supervisors carrying out the probation will determine the type of sentence that will be passed to the person who was put in probation (Carrabine et al 2009),It is of importance to know that, the roles of the probation service differ from one country to another but they are similar in one way or the other, On this basis, the clear role of this service world wide is to make sure that the community is provided with adequate security and ensure that proper punishment of offenders is carried out according to the level of crime committed, Importantly, the probation service does not work to inflict pain to the criminals by punishing them physically but to rehabilitate them in order to change their behaviors, According to criminologists like Carrabine Eamonn, the probation service has the duty of protecting the public, preventing crime in the society by cutting down the rates of crime in society, enforcing punishment on criminals, rehabilitating criminals to make them law abiding individuals, and upholding the interests of crime victims, It is of importance to note that, the victims of crime should be looked at seriously in order to avoid hurting them more (Cote 2002),Buy Essays, Essay Writing Help - Custom Essay Greek Colonization The notion of colonization in the Mediterranean region had a lot of problems that were associated with the developments that emerged as a result of this colonization, In this case, this study will focus on the Greeks who migrated and settled as well as those who did not migrate but experienced the social, political and economic changes in their communities, The big issue in this study is to look at this mobility and the question whether colonization played a role in increasing movements or not, If so, how this happened and why, Secondly, this study will focus on the formation of the Greek city-state or polis where questions like how, why and when did polis established will be answered (Purcell 1991),Comparisons of social, economic, and political changes are the backbone of the problems that were associated with the Greek colonization, On this basis, there were significant factors that brought about these problems, These factors included; the access to various chances ion the productive landscapes, the employment of human labor both in the cities and agricultural farms, and the aspects of mobility, These factors were also central to the development of urbanization in the Greek colonization (Osborne 1998),One of the problems that were associated with colonization is the production of food in agricultural farms in Mediterranean region, In this case, this production was severely affected by the uncertainties of rainfall, It should be noted that, it was required for each and every person to produce crop during the year when the amount of rainfall was abundant in order to utilize these produces in bad years, On this basis, the colonization of Greeks led to over cultivation of the coastal areas of the Mediterranean sea hence increasing cases of erosion and most of the lands turning dry, This brought about low productions in food supply, This problem was typically overcome by over production and diversification in terms of crop production (Morgan 2003),On the other hand, there was disposing of power caused by fragmentation of lands, It is of importance to note that, the wealthier and rich people in this civilization acquired larger tracks of lands as compared to those people who were relatively poor, In this case, the more powerful people in terms of political powers were able to acquire more resources in the Greek colonization as compared to the weak in terms of political powers, As a result of this, this process can be equated with what was indicated by Marx that traditional agriculture was more political than capitalist, This is because the amount of power possessed by an individual determined the amount of resources owned in agricultural fields, ,In this case, these problems that were related to the Greek colonization were as a result of the fact that the traditional colonization was more of a representation of agrarian power structures than ugg sale political hegemony (Antonaccio 2001),The concept of political domination is evident in the Greek colonization, This can be termed as a problem since the monoculture of sugarcane and the plans or organized transportation was an indication of a manipulation of Mediterranean landscapes in the context of political domination, During this colonization, the political powerful were able to carry out their profitable activities with ease a thing which was very difficult for the common people, In this cultivation of these sugar cane land, the slaves or serfs were used hence there was cases of non free labor, It is of importance to note that, the concept of using slaves especially the chattel-slaves was a problem that was associated with the Greek colonization (Vlassopoulos 2007),On the other hand, the history of the Greek cities demonstrates a problem that emerged as a result of the notion of Greek colonization, Urbanization in this period was an invasive and ugg australia uk disruptive intervention in the social and economic aspects, In this case, the Greek colonization brought about increased migration of people from the rural agricultural areas to the developing cities which brought about social and economic problems in this area, On this basis, since the urban nucleus and chora were not separable, the process of urbanization represented some problems in as far as rights and opportunities in the productive landscapes were concerned, This is because the process of land distribution made people to be forced to move from their areas to other places which resulted to social problems as a result of interactions, ,The process of city building brought about by urbanization was very costly hence bringing about economic problems, ,Additionally, the wealthy and politically powerful in the urban areas in Greek colonization were able to win the city-politics, In this case, this was an indication of political domination in the urban areas (Purcell 1991), Aztec Warriors The Aztec army was composed of a variety of classes and ranks, from this they build a hierarchy structure to their army allowing them to organize and go into battle and into war with confidence, The Majority of the army was built around commoners who had the basic training of fighting behind them and were often outside of the warrior ranking system, A smaller part of the army was constructed from Aztec nobility who ranking in the army was denoted by their achievements, these were the professional warriors whose full time occupation was battle and war,Only the bravest Aztec warriors who fought well in battle could become either jaguar or eagle warriors, These Aztec warriors were said to have been possessed the power of the Jaguar or Eagle while they wore their customs in battle, And it is this reputation that made them the respected and feared, The Aztec army consisted of Eagle warriors and Jaguar warriors, The Eagle warriors generally carried spears, and had eagle plumage as their uniform, They were the rank and file troops of the Aztec army, uggs store and wore no armor,The best of the Eagle warriors were promoted to Jaguar warrior, who carried obsidian swords and wooden shields, Jaguar warriors were the Aztec crack-troops, and were highly feared by other Meso-American civilizations for their martial prowess, For a commoner to rise in status it would have to be proved in battle and taking captives was a big factor, The Aztecs Front) was another great event in the political history of the country, It was the first autonomous socialist women

  C343,BC the,Thirtieth Dynasty,ruled as the last native royal house of dynastic Egypt, which ended with the kingship of,Nectanebo II, A brief restoration of Persian rule, sometimes known as the,Thirty-First Dynasty, began in 343,BC, but shortly after, in 332,BC, the Persian ruler Mazaces handed Egypt over to,Alexander the Great,without a fight,[56]10) Ptolemaic Dynasty 332 BC-30 BC In,332 BCAlexander the Great,conquered Egypt with little resistance from the Persians and was welcomed by the Egyptians as a deliverer, The administration established by Alexander's successors, the Ptolemies, was based on an Egyptian model and based in the new,capital city,of,Alexandria, The city was to showcase the power and prestige of Greek rule, and became a,seat of learning,and culture, centered at the famous,Library of Alexandria,,The,Lighthouse of Alexandria,lit the way for the many ships which kept trade flowing through the city, as the Ptolemies made commerce and revenue-generating enterprises, such as papyrus manufacturing, their top priority, Greek culture,did not supplant native Egyptian culture, as the Ptolemies supported time-honored traditions in an effort to secure the loyalty of the populace, They built new temples in Egyptian style, supported traditional cults, and portrayed themselves as pharaohs, Some traditions merged, as Greek and,Egyptian gods,were,syncretized,into composite deities, such as Serapis, and,classical Greek,forms of sculpture influenced traditional Egyptian motifs, Despite their efforts to appease the Egyptians, the Ptolemies were challenged by native rebellion, bitter family rivalries, and the powerful mob of Alexandria which had formed following the death of,Ptolemy IV,,In addition, as,Rome,relied more heavily on imports of grain from Egypt, the Romans took great interest in the political situation in the country, Continued Egyptian revolts, ambitious politicians, and powerful Syrian opponents made this situation unstable, leading Rome to send forces to secure the country as a province of its empire,11) Roman dominationEgypt became a province of the,Roman Empire,in 30,BC, following the defeat of,Marc Antony,and,Ptolemaic,Queen,Cleopatra VII,by,Octavian,(later Emperor,Augustus) in the,Battle of Actium, The Romans relied heavily on grain shipments from Egypt, and the,Roman army, under the control of a prefect appointed by the Emperor, quelled rebellions, strictly enforced the collection of heavy taxes, and prevented attacks by bandits, which had become a notorious problem during the period,,Alexandria became an increasingly important center on the trade route with the orient, as exotic luxuries were in high demand in Rome, Although the Romans had a more hostile attitude than the Greeks towards the Egyptians, some traditions such as mummification and worship of the traditional gods continued,,The art of,mummy portraiture,flourished, and some of the Roman emperors had themselves depicted as pharaohs, though not to the extent that the Ptolemies had, The former lived outside Egypt and did not perform the ceremonial functions of Egyptian kingship,Local administration became Roman in style and closed to native,Egyptians, From the mid-first century AD,,Christianity,took root in Alexandria as it was seen as another cult that could be accepted, However, it was an uncompromising religion that sought to win converts from,paganism,and threatened the popular religious traditions, This led to persecution of converts to Christianity, culminating in the great purges of,Diocletian,starting in 303 AD, but eventually Christianity won out,,In 391 AD the Christian EmperorTheodosius,introduced legislation that banned pagan rites and closed temples,,Alexandria became the scene of great anti-pagan riots with public and private religious imagery destroyed,,As a consequence, Egypt's pagan culture was continually in decline, While the native population continued to speak,their language, the ability to read,hieroglyphic writing,slowly disappeared as the role of the Egyptian temple priests and priestesses diminished, The temples themselves were sometimes converted to churches or abandoned to the desert,For more historical summaries and outlines please see other articles by Dr Simon Harding chronosconsulting biblon Irish Mythology - the Legend of Diarmuid and Grainne Grainne, daughter of the High King Cormac Mac Airt was believed to me the most beautiful, desirable and worthiest of women in all of Ireland, Her father gave her hand in marriage to Ireland's greatest warrior Fionn Mac Cumhaill, however at their betrothal feast Grainne became distressed that Fionn was older than her father and fell in love with one of Fionn's men named Diarmuid (who had a love spot on his forehead that made him irresistible to all women), Grainne laced all the wine with a sleeping potion which was served to all the cheap uggs guests and encouraged Diarmuid to run away with her, Diarmuid, out of loyalty to his leader at first refused but Grainne wasn't taking ugg boots uk no for an answer, she threatened Diarmuid with a geis (a curse), he relented and they fled, Fionn immediately went in pursuit of them, they managed to evade him several times with the help of the some members of the Fianna and Diarmuid's foster father Aengus Og, Diarmuid eaten up with remorse refused for a long time to sleep with Grainne, spurning her to tease him terribly, once exclaiming that the water splashing on her legs was more adventurous than him, Eventually, Aengus Og negotiated peace with Fionn and the pursued lovers settled in County Sligo and had five children, Fionn married Grainne's sister but was still very bitter over the betrayal of Diarmuid and Grainne, Fionn organised a boar hunt near Ben Bulben where Diarmuid was mortally wounded by a wild boar, Fionn had the power to save him by letting him drink water from his hands but he let the water slip through them and Diarmuid died, Russell Shortt is a travel consultant with Exploring Ireland, the leading specialists in customised, private escorted tours, escorted coach tours and independent self drive tours of Ireland, Article source: exploringireland The role of Probation Service In order to look at the roles played by probation service, it is of importance to know what probation service is, According to Newburn, T, (2007), probation service is an organization within the Department of Justice and Law Reform, It is of great importance to note that, this agency plays an important role of helping in the reduction of crime levels and at the same time enhances community safety, It should be noted that, this is done by the agency cooperating with criminals in the attempt of changing their conducts and repairing the harm that was dome by crime, In this case, this agency assesses and manages criminals in the community, As indicated by Newburn, T, (2007), probation officers play the role of supervising criminals who have already been released from prisons in order to reduce the rates of recidivism, On the other hand, probation officers have the duty of proposing sentencing in the courts of law within the criminal justice systems (Akers 1999),It is of importance to note that, a probation officer performs duties assigned by the court to him/her, On this basis, the most common duties performed by the probation officers are to supervise criminals who have been declared to be on probation by the court, Additionally, the probation service includes the investigation done on criminals' history before sentencing the criminal in order to determine their past life in crime, As a result of their work, the probation officers are supposed to have excellent communication skills in order to perform their duties competently, It should be noted that, before a criminal is sentenced, his past history in crime is studied so that the legal systems may be excellent in making their judgment, Further, in some states the probation departments have surveillance officers who posses the full authority of a probation officer, In this relation, these officers are termed as the eyes and ears of the probation team in matters concerning supervision of criminals after release, On this basis, they roles include carrying out most of the field work in supervising criminals on how they are carrying out their daily activities, they have the authority to arrest a criminal or conduct a search in cases where a criminal is suspected, and unsystematic home and work visits, It should be noted that, the surveillance officers in the department of probation service performs the role of field work while the probation officer does much of his/her work in the office (Steinberg 2009),Carrabine, E, et al, (2009) suggested that, probation is one of the techniques used by the disciplinary system in the protection of the community in the attempt of instructing the attorney and corrects the misconducts of the attorney, On this basis, the probation service has the role of looking at the records of criminals and deciding which sentence is appropriate to them, It is of importance to note that, a person may be put in probation before being sentenced in order for the court to supervise him/her, On this basis, the results of the supervisors carrying out the probation will determine the type of sentence that will be passed to the person who was put in probation (Carrabine et al 2009),It is of importance to know that, the roles of the probation service differ from one country to another but they are similar in one way or the other, On this basis, the clear role of this service world wide is to make sure that the community is provided with adequate security and ensure that proper punishment of offenders is carried out according to the level of crime committed, Importantly, the probation service does not work to inflict pain to the criminals by punishing them physically but to rehabilitate them in order to change their behaviors, According to criminologists like Carrabine Eamonn, the probation service has the duty of protecting the public, preventing crime in the society by cutting down the rates of crime in society, enforcing punishment on criminals, rehabilitating criminals to make them law abiding individuals, and upholding the interests of crime victims, It is of importance to note that, the victims of crime should be looked at seriously in order to avoid hurting them more (Cote 2002),Buy Essays, Essay Writing Help - Custom Essay Greek Colonization The notion of colonization in the Mediterranean region had a lot of problems that were associated with the developments that emerged as a result of this colonization, In this case, this study will focus on the Greeks who migrated and settled as well as those who did not migrate but experienced the social, political and economic changes in their communities, The big issue in this study is to look at this mobility and the question whether colonization played a role in increasing movements or not, If so, how this happened and why, Secondly, this study will focus on the formation of the Greek city-state or polis where questions like how, why and when did polis established will be answered (Purcell 1991),Comparisons of social, economic, and political changes are the backbone of the problems that were associated with the Greek colonization, On this basis, there were significant factors that brought about these problems, These factors included; the access to various chances ion the productive landscapes, the employment of human labor both in the cities and agricultural farms, and the aspects of mobility, These factors were also central to the development of urbanization in the Greek colonization (Osborne 1998),One of the problems that were associated with colonization is the production of food in agricultural farms in Mediterranean region, In this case, this production was severely affected by the uncertainties of rainfall, It should be noted that, it was required for each and every person to produce crop during the year when the amount of rainfall was abundant in order to utilize these produces in bad years, On this basis, the colonization of Greeks led to over cultivation of the coastal areas of the Mediterranean sea hence increasing cases of erosion and most of the lands turning dry, This brought about low productions in food supply, This problem was typically overcome by over production and diversification in terms of crop production (Morgan 2003),On the other hand, there was disposing of power caused by fragmentation of lands, It is of importance to note that, the wealthier and rich people in this civilization acquired larger tracks of lands as compared to those people who were relatively poor, In this case, the more powerful people in terms of political powers were able to acquire more resources in the Greek colonization as compared to the weak in terms of political powers, As a result of this, this process can be equated with what was indicated by Marx that traditional agriculture was more political than capitalist, This is because the amount of power possessed by an individual determined the amount of resources owned in agricultural fields, ,In this case, these problems that were related to the Greek colonization were as a result of the ugg boots sale uk fact that the traditional colonization was more of a representation of agrarian power structures than political hegemony (Antonaccio 2001),The concept of political domination is evident in the Greek colonization, This can be termed as a problem since the monoculture of sugarcane and the plans or organized transportation was an indication of a manipulation of Mediterranean landscapes in the context of political domination, During this colonization, the political powerful were able to carry out their profitable activities with ease a thing which was very difficult for the common people, In this cultivation of these sugar cane land, the slaves or serfs were used hence there was cases of non free labor, It is of importance to note that, the concept of using slaves especially the chattel-slaves was a problem that was associated with the Greek colonization (Vlassopoulos 2007),On the other hand, the history of the Greek cities demonstrates a problem that emerged as a result of the notion of Greek colonization, Urbanization in this period was an invasive and disruptive intervention in the social and economic aspects, In this case, the Greek colonization brought about increased migration of people from the rural agricultural areas to the developing cities which brought about social and economic problems in this area, On this basis, since the urban nucleus and chora were not separable, the process of urbanization represented some problems in as far as rights and opportunities in the productive landscapes were concerned, This is because the process of land distribution made people to be forced to move from their areas to other places which resulted to social problems as a result of interactions, ,The process of city building brought about by urbanization was very costly hence bringing about economic problems, ,Additionally, the wealthy and politically powerful in the urban areas in Greek colonization were able to win the city-politics, In this case, this was an indication of political domination in the urban areas (Purcell 1991), Aztec Warriors The Aztec army was composed of a variety of classes and ranks, from this they build a hierarchy structure to their army allowing them to organize and go into battle and into war with confidence, The Majority of the army was built around commoners who had the basic training of fighting behind them and were often outside of the warrior ranking system, A smaller part of the army was constructed from Aztec nobility who ranking in the army was denoted by their achievements, these were the professional warriors whose full time occupation was battle and war,Only the bravest Aztec warriors who fought well in battle could become either jaguar or eagle warriors, These Aztec warriors were said to have been possessed the power of the Jaguar or Eagle while they wore their customs in battle, And it is this reputation that made them the respected and feared, The Aztec army consisted of Eagle warriors and Jaguar warriors, The Eagle warriors generally carried spears, and had eagle plumage as their uniform, They were the rank and file troops of the Aztec army, and wore no armor,The best of the Eagle warriors were promoted to Jaguar warrior, who carried obsidian swords and wooden shields, Jaguar warriors were the Aztec crack-troops, and were highly feared by other Meso-American civilizations for their martial prowess, For a commoner to rise in status it would have to be proved in battle and taking captives was a big factor, The Aztecthe way of the warrior ad avanzare sulla montagna e di fatto si bloccarono ai piedi dell'abbazia,I comandi alleati si resero conto dell'impossibilits guns and became the symbol of the era, alongside the brightly painted VW buses commonly used by the Flower Children,The hippie generation became known as the some day they would be able to turn this knowledge against the Empire,,Theodosius and the ChristiansThe Emperor Julian the Apostate (see page 2762) had tried to restore pagan-ism, the worship of the old gods, After his death in 363 there was religious free-dom for both Christians and pagans, but Theodosius was determined to destroy paganism, and succeeded, Paganism ceased to exist as an organized religion, although a few pagans still worshipped their gods in secret,Theodosius also fought Christians whose beliefs were different from his own, In these times the Church was split by serious disagreements over doc-trine, which Theodosius tried to stop by establishing by law who was and who was not a member of the Catholic Church, From now on only those who upheld the Nicene Creed were true believers and Catholics, All others, like those who followed the teaching of the Alexandrian priest, Anus, were

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  five from the Nepali Congress Party and two from the UMI ,Since the constitution requires that women make up five per cent of the upper house, three women were also nominated to fill the quota, At the national level, 10 per cent of the women candidates were elected, At the district level, although women constituted a negligible percentage of candidates, there was a 100 per cent victory for women, with all seven women winning, At the village level, 25 per cent of those women who stood for elections won,, The new constitution of Nepal promulgated in 1990, provided women with equal political rights, It states that women can vote, compete in local and national elections, involve in political parties, and support and adopt any political ideology, In 1990, constitutional provisions were introduced that made it mandatory to nominate at least five per cent of women candidates for the House of Representatives, and to provide for seven seats for women in the National Assembly, The only provision added to appease women is the article on election rules , The constitution now requires that women amount to at least five per cent of the candidates fielded by each political party in the elections for the House of Representatives, In the decade long armed conflict more than 13 thousand Nepalese lost their lives, Thousands were displaced and hundreds disappeared, Terror, instability and infrastructure damage took its toll on the nation, In the meantime, the entire family of King Birendra was wiped out in the infamous Royal palace massacre, The subsequent rise of King Gyanendra, pushed the country to further turmoil, The government failed to hold elections in time, On charges of incompetence Sher Bahadur Deuba's elected government was overthrown and the King formed his own government, , The Maoists movement had in the meantime gathered momentum, hindering the holding of elections, The new government under Lokendra Bahadur Chand also failed to conduct elections, Surya Bahadur Thapa was appointed as the new Prime Minister, He held peace talks with the Maoists to prepare an environment for elections, but that too resulted in a failure, Deuba was reappointed the Prime Minister, but only remained in office for a short time, as dialogue with the Maoists did not materialize, The escalation of violence and killings only added to the people's desperation and increased security problem, , On February 1st 2005, the King took over absolute state powers and assumed the role of the Chairman of the cabinet, a cabinet that he had himself nominated, This led the political parties to form an alliance with the Maoist rebels, In November 2005, a 12-point agreement was signed by the seven political parties and the Maoists, The first objective of the agreement was to end the violent conflict and restore peace in the country, This agreement provided the Maoists an opportunity to suspend the armed movement and participate in a peaceful democratic movement, , The peaceful movement turned into a people's movement, Millions of people marched onto the streets demanding an end to the tyrannical monarchy and the writing of a new Constitution through a Constituent Assembly, The people finally forced the king to relinquish state control on April 24, 2006, The success of the People's Movement II left king Gyanendra powerless, The political parties are now committed to writing a Democratic Constitution through a Constituent Assembly elected by the people, The Maoists have become a part of the Parliament, The responsibilities vested in the King have now been transferred to the Prime Minister, , An election for the Nepalese Constituent Assembly was held in Nepal on 10 April 2008 after having been postponed from earlier dates of 20 June 2007 and 22 November 2007, The Communist Party of Nepal (Maoist) (CPN (M)) placed first in the election with 220 out of 575 elected seats, and it became the largest party in the Constituent Assembly, It was followed by the Nepali Congress with 110 seats and the Communist Party of Nepal (Unified Marxist-Leninist) with 103 seats, As of 17 April, 26 women have secured seats in the new assembly, 22 from the CPN (M), one from the Nepali Congress, two from the Madhesi Jana Adhikar Forum, Nepal and one from Tarai-Madhesh Loktantrik Party from direct election on the basis of first track past post, South Asian nations share certain predominant features: centralised governments; socio-economic inequalities based on class, gender and caste; and nationalistic divisive claims on grounds of ethnicity, language and religion, India and Sri Lanka have remained democracies for the past 50 years, while Bangladesh and Pakistan have been swinging between democracy, militarism and autocracy, Nepal has passed from democracy to absolute monarchy and back to democracy, absolute monarchy, and federal democratic republic, , , , India was under British colonial rule for approximately 200 years, and became an independent State in 1947, India then encompassed todays ugg sale uk organisations were born to raise the political and social consciousness among women in Nepal, In 1960, the King of Nepal subverted the democratic panchayat system to an autocratic one, This put a sudden end to all associations and their activities, Women, however, remained politically active, In protest against the undemocratic royal proclamation of 1960, a group of women openly waved black flags in a public procession, and were imprisoned,, Later, in the peopleTaoism' since most of the Taos became followers of Buddhism, In this case, most Taos started advocating for s issues continued to be filtered through the existing patriarchal system, Women of India participated in demonstrations such as the all-night dharnas of 1930 against foreign cloth, and in selling `the salt of freedom' during the salt Satyagraha, These campaigns succeeded in breaking the myth of segregation, They also articulated liberal sentiments like suffrage rights, To advocate womenand since the 1970s Australia, The Netherlands and Germany have dominated at the Olympics,Women's hockey was first played at British universities and schools, and the first club, Molesey Ladies, was founded in 1887, The first national association was the Irish Ladies Hockey Union in 1894 and though rebuffed by the Hockey Association, women's hockey grew rapidly around the world, This led to the International Federation of Women's Hockey Associations (IFWHA) in 1927, though this did not include many continental European countries where women played as sections of men's associations and were affiliated to the FIH, The IFWHA held conferences every three years, and tournaments associated with these were the primary IFWHA competitions, These tournaments were non-competitive until 1975,By the early 1970s there were 22 associations with women's sections in the FIH and 36 associations in the IFWHA, Discussions started about a common rule book, The FIH introduced competitive tournaments in 1974, forcing the acceptance of the principle of competitive hockey by the IFWHA in 1973, It took until 1982 for the two bodies to merge, but this allowed the introduction of women's hockey to the Olympic games from 1980 where, as in the men's game, The Netherlands, Germany, and Australia have been consistently strong,Please visit my Funny Animal Art Prints Collection @ fabprints My other website is called Directory of British Icons: fabprints,webs The Chinese call Britain 'The Island of Hero's' which I think sums up what we British are all about, We British are inquisitive and competitive and are always looking over the horizon to the next adventure and discovery, Copyright , 2010 Paul Hussey, All Rights Reserved, American Indian Code Talkers in World War II The World War II was an international military conflict that started in 1939 and ended in 1945, During this time all the global nations especially the great powers formed two major opposing alliances, In this case, more than 100 million military globally were incited, The major participants of the war used their economic, military, scientific, technological and political abilities at the service of the war effort hence eliminating the previously placed distinction between civilian and military, It has been indicated that, World War II was the most deadly conflict between countries of the world throughout human history, This is because it led to the death of so many military personnel and also civilians, During this was, the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters through the military attack bombed the Pearl Harbor in the United States of America that led to America getting involved in the war, Importantly, the American attack by the Japan was to warn it or prevent it from influencing the war that was planned by the Empire of Japan on the Southeast Asia, On this basis, this war was planned against Britain, Netherlands and the Philippines (Aaseng 78),It should be noted that, Japan had planned to attack Malaya as well as the Dutch East Indies in order to get access of natural resources such as oil and rubber, In this case, Japan viewed America as a threat as far as this invasion was concerned and decided to silence it, On this basis, the United States of America decided to enter into the war to take ravage on the Empire of Japan, As a result of this, the American technology that was basically used in communication was destroyed especially when the ships sunk after being bombed, Notably, during the World War II conflicting countries needed technology and science in communication especially when they used ships, Certainly, the Japanese attack on the American Pearl Harbor destroyed their science and technology as far as codes are concerned and hence forced American military troupes to use the Navajo Indians and their language to make the unbreakable code, In this study, the science that was needed during this war is termed as the science and the Indian innovation will be termed as the technology (Watson 34),Innovation of Code TalkingA point worth noting is that, code talkers was a terminology that was used during the World War II to describe those people who used the code language to communicate, On this basis, the Native Americans served in the American Marine Corps where their main job was transmission of secret tactical messages that aided the fighters to attain success, Importantly, the code talkers usually transmitted these secret ideas and thoughts over the military telephones with the use of official or unofficial established codes that were created upon their native languages, Basically, this code communication was very vital since it made communication secretive throughout the war period (Utter 110),Certainly, after the America technology and science were destroyed by the Japanese Imperial General Headquarters the bilingual Navajo speakers were recruited by the Marines in order to function in their standard communications units in the Pacific Theater, According to Santella (32), the aspect of code talking was engineered by the Choctaw Indians that served the United States of America during the World War I, it is of importance to note that, the World War 1 needed advanced technology and science in conquering the conflicting nations, In this case, the innovation of code talking by the Navajo Indians that served the United States of America during this time, On the other hand, the aspect of using this code language and code communications in terms of signals was termed as the World War 11 science, On this basis, there was a need of a code that was not breakable after the American code was broken by the Japanese attack, In this case, this could only be found through innovations of new technology which was done by the Navajo Indians (Santella 32),A point worth noting is that, the idea of using code talking in order to secure the messages and information sent to the American army and Army air corps was first developed by Philip Johnston, In this case, Philip was one of the few Navajos who were able to speak their native language effortlessly, In this case, he was able to search for military codes that could not be broken by the Japanese specialists in code breaking, This is because he was aware of what the code talking resulted in the World War 1 (McCoy 67),The reason as to why the code talking technology emerged from the Navajo was because they had the military requirements for illegible code since it is an unwritten language that is very complex and very difficult to understand, In this case, if someone was not trained how to use the Navajo language in talking it would be very hard to understand the syntax and tonal qualities, On the basis of language complexity, the Navajo language and the Navajo Indians were indicated as the most preferable elements that would bring about victory in America, As a result of this, early 1942 Johnston met with Major General Clayton B, who was in charge of the general of Amphibious Corps in Pacific Fleet, and his personnel to induce them of the Navajo language's value as code, This is because he had shown some qualities in this language that were not present in other languages to make it viable to be used in code talking, In the process of coming up with code talking, Johnston conducted tests under replicated battle conditions where he demonstrated that Navajos could program, broadcast, and decipher a three-line English message in 20 seconds, This was a very essential technology since machines of the time required 30 minutes to perform the same job, As a result of this, Vogel was convinced by this technology and hence suggested to the Commandant of the Marine Corps that the Marines recruit 200 Navajos, This indicates how the code talking in America by the Navajo Indians was innovated and implemented (Langille 37), The Great Comanche Raid ,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,,, The Great Comanche Raid,,,,,In the month of August, 1840, under the silvery light of a brilliant full moon known to Texas settlers as a Comanche moon, a huge band of some several hundred Comanche and Kiowa warriors thundered out of the Comancheria and headed directly for the heart of the Republic of Texas, The raid was launched in retaliation for what the Comanches perceived to be the unprovoked killing of twelve Penateka war chiefs and many innocent women and children at the Council House peace talks in San Antonio only a few months before,,,,, Under the leadership of Buffalo Hump, one of the few surviving Penateka Comanche war chiefs, the huge war party passed,to the east of San Antonio before spreading out and cutting a wide swath of destruction across the fertile lands that stretched to the southeast between the Guadalupe and San Antonio rivers, Those settlers lucky enough to receive a warning fled before their homes were burned and their livestock slaughtered or scattered, but many died where the Comanches found them, The ones who died quickly were the fortunate few,,,,, Killing and burning along the way, the warriors didn't halt their movement southeast until they reached the old settlement of Victoria late in the afternoon of August 6, After quickly surrounding the town, Buffalo Hump did something,few other war chiefs had done before or since, when he led an attack that overran most of Victoria, Many citizens saved themselves by banding together and forting up in the south part of town, but fifteen people, including seven slaves were killed as the Comanches galloped through the streets howling their war cries and firing,flint-tipped arrows at anything that moved,,,,, Before the smoke from,burning buildings had cleared, the Comanches were,again on the move to the southeast, this time driving a herd of nearly two thousand stolen horses and mules ahead of them, The vast herd of "Comanche gold" would eventually prove to be their undoing, Continuing down the Guadalupe River bottomlands, the savage hoard burned and killed as the opportunity arose, Militia companies and other volunteers turned out, but their only contribution consisted of burying the dead, as all along the Guadalupe houses burned and unwary settlers died,,,,, On the morning of August 8, the Comanches formed,a huge half-moon arc as they approached the Gulf coast, and the little seaport town of Linnville located on Lavaca Bay which served as,San Antonio's port of entry, A few citizens spotted them from a distance, but they mistook the warriors,for Mexican traders until the savages began their screaming charge, There was little time for the bewildered inhabitants to do anything except flee for the safety of the boats anchored in the bay, Some found refuge on the steamer Mustang lying just offshore, or rowed themselves to safety in small boats, but many others were cut down before they reached the water and immediately scalped, Those who did manage to escape were forced to watch as their homes and businesses were looted and burned before their eyes,,,,, The Comanches spent the entire day pillaging and burning Linnville, Warehouses packed with goods destined to be shipped to San Antonio were a special delight for the looters, Warriors dressed themselves up in top hats and fancy frockcoats, Some even paraded in women's dresses and petticoats, their ponies' tails braided with a rainbow of ribbons and even entire bolts of cloth streaming out behind them as they galloped back and forth through town, One citizen was so distraught and angry with the ransacking that he waded ashore waving an old shotgun above his head and challenged the warriors to meet him in combat, The bewildered Comanches, thinking,the man must be crazy and therefore untouchable, simply rode around him, acting as if he didn't exist, When he finally gave up and waded back out to his boat he discovered,the shotgun had never been loaded,,,,, Satisfied that the Comanche blood spilled by the Texans during the Council House fight was fully avenged and all debts paid, Buffalo Hump at long last called for a return to the Comancheria, However, as heavily burdened as the Comanches were with dozens of fully loaded pack mules, many prisoners, and well over two thousand stolen horses, the trail home would prove to be treacherous, At that,moment riders were galloping all over central Texas drawing men from Lavaca, Gonzales, Goliad, Victoria, Cuero, Bastrop, San Antonio and Austin and from more than a hundred widely scattered homesteads, A militia company under the command of Captain Tumlinson pressed the savages hard from the rear using hit and run tactics while frontier leaders like Matthew "Old Paint" Caldwell, Ben McCulloch, and Edward Burleson helped to gather the volunteers,well ahead of the Comanches on Plum Creek not far from present-day Lockhart,,,,, If Buffalo Hump had swung south of San Antonio on the return ride, the Comanches may well have escaped the trap being set for them, but instead the war chief arrogantly continued to lead his huge war party to the northwest straight into impending disaster, On August 11, General Felix Huston of the regular Texas army arrived at the Plum Creek site and took command from,"Old Paint" Caldwell in spite of,protests from the volunteers because of his lack of experience in dealing with Indians, On the 12th, Burleson and one hundred more volunteers rode in, and they were shortly joined by Jack Hays' company of Texas Rangers from San Antonio, Tonkawa scouts reported that the Comanches, moving slowly north and raising a considerable cloud of dust, would soon reach the Big Prairie not far from Plum Creek,,,,, At Caldwell's suggestion, General Huston dismounted the volunteers and Texas Rangers and ordered them to take cover in the heavy brush growing along the Creek, When the unsuspecting Comanches moved out on the adjoining prairie a short time later, the Texans,mounted and emerged from the brush at a walk, slowly bringing the two great lines of horsemen together, The Comanches presented quite a spectacle dressed as many of them were in,fancy clothes stolen from the Linnville warehouses, The fierce horse warriors began to gallop back and forth between the lines, putting on a display of horsemanship that would have rivaled any show in the world,,,,, General Huston was more than content to sit his saddle and watch the show, but the experienced Indian fighters like Caldwell and McCulloch quickly realized,loot, not combat was the thing uppermost in the minds of the Comanches, They were,trying to delay the fight until the younger warriors could drive the huge herd of stolen horses and mules further to the northwest out of the reach of the Texans, Caldwell wanted to press the attack home immediately, but General Huston continued to hesitate, Then a Comanche war chief wearing a magnificent feathered headdress solved the dilemma by trotting his garishly painted pony out of the ranks and boldly challenging the Texas leaders to individual combat, Suddenly a shot rang out and the impact of a heavy rifle ball flipped the war chief off the back of his pony, A groan of dismay went up from the Comanches at this sign of bad medicine,,,,,,"Now, General," Caldwell shouted, "Charge 'em!",,,,,Without waiting for an order from the General, the Texans, screaming and shooting, spurred their mounts into the Comanche flank, stampeding the great herd of animals in all directions, The surprised warriors,dispersed to gain control the herd rather than remain in their line of battle, and they were stampeded right along with the stolen horses and mules, anches were scattered to the winds and the Texans began to kill every warrior they came across, The struggle was close and cruel and a running fight ensued for the next fifteen miles, but the fighting heart had been cut from the Comanches, and the day eventually became more of a massacre than a battle, Before the fighting was over more than eighty Comanche bodies lay strewn along the fifteen mile battlefield, Only one Texan was killed, The Comanches' white prisoners weren't as lucky, Many of them were killed before they could be rescued,,,,, The Battle of Plum Creek punished the Penateka Comanches severely, The warriors had tried a new and unaccustomed form of warfare and they had failed miserably, Never again would the Comanches attack a town in force or raid so deep into Texas, Instead they resumed their old form of guerrilla tactics that continued to prove formidable, President Lamar was now convinced that the Comanches must be taught a lesson for their effrontery, and he ordered Colonel John Moore to prepare an expedition for a retaliatory attack on a Comanche winter village far up the Colorado, The Texas Rangers would now carry the fight deep into the heart of the Comancheria,,,,, The above article is backround information used as part of the research to write my Historical Fiction series, Saga of a Texas Ranger, you can order a hardcover book or kindle by clicking on the following link: amazon /Saga-Texas-Ranger-Jeffery-Robenalt/dp/1609761731, Use of New Media in Campaigns In November 4, 2008, the United States of America conducted its 56th presidential election, Basically, the major party candidates during the campaign ran on the platform of change and reform throughout Washington, In this case, the United States of America had undergone an economic crisis in the year 2008 and hence domestic policy and economy were the major themes during the campaigns, Importantly, there were two main opponents who vied for the presidential in America; Barrack Obama a senator from Illinois and John McCain, In this presidential election, Obama got 365 electoral votes while McCain had 173 (Harris 59),Basically, the United States of America's 2008 presidential election had some unique aspects, In this case, this was the first election for an African American president to be voted in, additionally, in this election two sitting senators ran against each other for the post of president, For a period of fifty six years, America has been voting in an incumbent president or a vice-president but during the 2008 presidential election no incumbent president or vice-president was elected, As a matter of fact, this presidential election in America was the very first to elect a woman to be the vice-president, Notably, the two nominated candidates in this presidential election were born outside the contiguous United States, In this relation, the two running major parties were the Democratic Party and the Republican Party (Anderson 120),The process of campaigning during this election was heavily utilized the advanced technology in America, On this basis, Obama was known to use internet in selling out his policies to all Americans, By doing this, he targeted the young people aged between 18 to 29 years as this is the group that rely on internet as the new media for political information in relation to the election, The use of internet in campaigning by Obama marked a great change in the process of campaigning as the young people viewed it as a great opportunity of listening to their views especially by taking the course that is mostly related to them, Certainly, the political communication to viewers was basically based on the information that was collected about them, Importantly, Obama built relationships between him and his supporters through social websites like Facebook and MySpace, In this case, he established an honest, amiable and face-to-face quality that gave his supporters an intellect of security and conviction, which encouraged them to convince others in their local communities (Solis & Lester 12),According to the Obama's campaign managers, the reason as to why younger voters were inclined to ignore politicians was because politicians were likely to pay no attention to issues which most concerned them, On this basis, Obama was in a position to receive a very positive reaction from America's youth, Importantly, it was a very great chance for Obama since McCain rarely used internet in his campaign, In this case, Obama's campaign was hence reinforced by his opponent John McCain's moderately limited utilization of the Internet in his campaign, This can be used to indicate that, most pf the young people who use internet as their means of communication did not come to know his policies and ideas as they did to Obama's, Basically, McCain's campaign strategies were not comparable to Obama's both in terms of online usage and use of money in campaigning (Smith 183),Relationship between campaign strategy and the new mediaImportantly, in the United States of America's 2008 presidential election the new media which is basically the internet played a very significant role as far as Obama's campaigning strategies are concerned, On this basis, there was a very good and productive relationship between the campaigning strategies and the new media, In his campaign, Obama targeted mostly the young people aged from 18 to 29 years and hence his use of online communication had a great impact in communicating his policies, This is because this is the group which mostly use internet in communication and hence they were in a position to get his policies and ideas and convince the community to vote for him (Samuels 134),Certainly, by the use of online social websites like MySpace and Facebook Obama created a very good relationship0 with his supporters since this acted as a face-to-face communication to them, Additionally, the use of internet in campaigning proved to be a way of communicating policies to a personal level, On this basis, each and every person who was on Facebook or MySpace felt that he/she was addressed to on personal basis by Obama, According to the Obama's campaign strategists, the use of internet was a very good element of competing with McCain as he rarely used internet, In this case, John McCain targeted the relatively old people in the society rather than the young and educated (Magleby 58),It should be noted that, the new media and the email through the director Stephen Geer had three different goals which were direct to the Obama's campaign, On this basis, the new media and the emails were directed to sending messages, mobilizing the public, and funding the Obama's campaign, In this case, the public was wholly mobilized as those people who learned Obama's ideas over the internet convinced the other part of the community about them, Basically, as can be learned from the Obama's campaign strategists the use of internet helped a lot in his success during this election, In this relation, the relationship between Obama's campaign strategies and the new media was very successful, This is because through it many people came to learn about his policies and ideas (Louw 99), Victory on the Upper Colorado: The Expedition of Colonel John Moore original uggs Victory on the Upper Colorado: The Expedition of Colonel John Moore,,,,,,In spite of,the punishing defeat the Comanches suffered at the conclusion of the Great Raid of 1840, the President of the Republic of Texas, Mirabeau Lamar, and the majority of his supporters believed the Indians had not been punished severely enough for their devastating invasion of the lower settlements, The Texans agreed,further chastisement was in order to clearly demonstrate to the hostiles that the Republic would no longer tolerate such belligerent activity,,,,,,,Therefore, following the Battle of Plum Creek and at the behest of President Lamar, Texas Ranger Colonel John Moore began circulating advertisements in local newspapers and throughout the small towns and homesteads of frontier Texas seeking volunteers willing to join an expedition for the purpose of carrying the fight against the Comanches into the heart of the Comancheria,,,,,, Colonel Moore,led a similar expedition the previous February, attacking a Comanche village on Spring Creek in the valley of the San Saba River, After an initial success, the attack ended in disaster when Moore ordered an unexpected retreat, In the report he rendered on the affair, Moore stated,the retreat was necessary because of,poor visibility and the need for his men to reload their weapons, However, some of the men who were ordered to retreat bitterly opposed Moore's decision, The Lipan Chief Castro withdrew his warriors from the Colonel's command and set out for home, To make matters worse, the Comanches conducted a well-planned midnight raid on the expedition's remuda and ran off with more than half the horses, forcing many of the men to return to Austin on foot, Moore was determined such a folly would not occur again,,,,,, The ads and circulars Colonel Moore posted brought a prompt response, and by early October nearly ninety volunteer Texas Rangers, mostly from Fayette and Bastrop counties gathered at Walnut Creek a few miles from Austin, Having been over much of the same terrain the year before, Moore decided to use pack mules to carry the expedition's supplies instead of wagons, A small herd of cattle to be used as a mobile commissary would,trail along behind the pack mules,,,,,, On Monday, October 5, the expedition, accompanied by Chief Castro and seventeen Lipan Apache scouts, moved north to the San Gabriel River, Bearing west, they followed the San Gabriel to its headwaters and then moved cross country to the Colorado River, thus avoiding the worst of the rugged Texas hill country, After fording the Colorado, the expedition moved northwest, crossing the San Saba and Llano rivers, Along the way Colonel Moore ordered the Lipan scouts to spread out and thoroughly scour the countryside for any sign of the Comanches, Moore was one of the first white men to travel so deep into the western reaches of the Colorado River, and in his later report he stated that he "found the country rich and beautiful, abundant in game, and covered with a waving sea of grass broken only uggs uk by occasional rivers and canyons, with tremendous vistas,",,,,, As the expedition approached the Concho River, the weather took a severe turn for the worse when a Texas "blue norther" unexpectedly blew,in bringing torrential freezing rain and near gale force, icy winds, It was impossible to stay dry, and a number of the Rangers became ill as the column plodded on through miles of deep mud and standing water, One young Ranger, Garrett Harrell, drowned while,the Rangers were fording the flooded Concho,,Beginning to grow discouraged,after so many days on the trail with no sign of the Comanches and little letup in the gloomy weather, Colonel Moore,ordered the column to follow the Concho back to its confluence with the Colorado, He planned to return to Austin if nothing turned up and the dismal weather conditions failed to improve,,,,,,,However, the rain abated somewhat as the Rangers neared the Colorado, and more importantly, the Lipan scouts found the tracks of a large number of unshod horses mixed in with the drag marks of many travois and the footprints of women and children, The trail was the clear sign of a village on the move, The Rangers followed the tracks northwest along the Colorado, and on October 23, they came across a large grove of pecan trees where the Comanches had stopped to gather nuts for the winter, Most of the nuts had been harvested, and with such a heavy extra load to carry, the scouts were sure,the Comanche encampment would not be,far off, After ordering the men to take cover in a brushy thicket on the reverse side of a hill sheltered from the icy blast of the north wind, Colonel Moore called on his two best scouts to ride ahead and locate the village, The scouts rode out at mid-morning and did not return until near sundown, but they brought welcome news, The Comanche village was located on a gentle bend of the Colorado less than twenty miles distant,,,,,, The news of the discovery energized the Rangers, and in spite of the freezing temperatures, they were eager for an engagement, After eating a cold supper, Colonel Moore led the column about ten miles up the Colorado where they secured their small herd of cattle in a mesquite grove near the river and continued on for a few more miles, Halting the march at midnight, Moore ordered the men to dismount and rest the horses while he dispatched the same two Lipan scouts to determine the exact location of the village and gather an estimate of the Comanches' strength, The scouts returned about 3:00 A,M, and reported that a village of approximately sixty buffalo hide lodges and an estimated one hundred and twenty-five warriors was located no more than four miles ahead on the south bank of the Colorado, The column continued its advance for another two miles where they secured their pack animals in a wooded hollow and waited for daylight,,,,,, Near sunrise on October 24, Colonel Moore gave the long-awaited order to mount and move forward, As the Rangers slowly approached the sleeping village, Lieutenant Clarke Owen was given fifteen men and told to ford the Colorado somewhere below the camp and be prepared to deal with any Comanches who managed to make it across the river, Captain Thomas Rabb and his command were on the right, Captain Nicholas Dawson and his men were on the left, and Colonel Moore took a position in the center along with the remainder of Lieutenant Owens' men, The Rangers moved to within two hundred yards of the encampment without being detected and silently went on line,,,,,, When all was in readiness Colonel Moore gave the signal and the entire command charged the village, The Comanches were taken by complete surprise, stumbling out of the snug warmth of their buffalo robes only to be greeted by the howling screams of the Rangers and the thunder of galloping horses, Nearly naked and weaponless, they fled for the perceived safety of the ford that crossed the Colorado,,,,,,,The Rangers rained down a hail of gunfire on the retreating and confused Comanches as they charged into the middle of the,buffalo hide lodges, Halfway through the camp Moore called for the men to dismount and continue their deadly fire, Many Indians were killed before they reached the river, and a large number,were brutally gunned down as they attempted to flounder across the ford, their bodies swirling away with the current, Those Comanches who were fortunate enough to run the deadly gauntlet of fire and reach the far bank fled across the open prairie only to be ridden down by Lieutenant Owens and his men who were eagerly awaiting,just such an opportunity,,,,,, Meanwhile, the Rangers in the village advanced on the river and continued to fire at the fleeing Comanches for the next thirty minutes, proving the accuracy of their long rifles by hitting many of the Indians as they emerged from the river on the opposite bank, The scene was one of carnage, Bodies of dead, dying, and wounded Comanche men, women, and children lay sprawled across the village and both banks of the river, Although an honest effort had been made by most of the Rangers to spare the lives of the women and children, a good number of them were killed in the confusion of the fight, Colonel Moore later reported that forty-eight Comanches had been "killed upon the ground and eighty killed and drowned in the river," Many of the Rangers believed this estimate was too low, Thirty-four Comanche prisoners were taken during the fight, None of the Rangers were killed and only two suffered minor wounds,,,,,, Colonel Moore's victory was undoubtedly the most severe punishment the Comanches had ever received at the hands of the Texas Rangers, In addition to the many casualties and prisoners the Indians suffered, all the property and food in the village was either confiscated or destroyed, including much of the loot,carried away from the raid on Linnville, More than five hundred Comanche horses were also rounded up,,,,,, The Rangers returned to Austin on November 7 with the welcome news of their victory, and the citizens,held a dinner and celebration in their honor, The power of the southern Penateka Comanches was,broken, and although they remained a nuisance, they were never able to fully recover from the results of the devastating defeat, However, the Texans and the northern Comanche tribes had not yet come into,meaningful contact, and the struggle for the western frontier would continue for many more years,The above glimpse of Texas History was gathered during the research for my historical fiction series, Saga of a Texas Ranger,, sagaofatexasranger , The Evolution of the Chinese Brush Painting China has been one of the leading countries in artistic painting which has been attributed by a number of factors, The traditional activities in the country have been one of the main factors that have contributed to the development of brush painting in china, More importantly, the art of painting in China has been developing sequentially over the last 600 years ago, Traditional factors like craftsmanship like pottery among others have been one of the main factors resulting into the eminent increment in the brush painting in China, In addition, the introduction of Buddhism in China in the 16th Century in china has greatly influenced the development of brush painting in China (Yang 108-134),Basically, various artistic characters and skills in China springing from traditional practices in the country have greatly influenced the development of Chinese brush painting, As a result of the activities practiced in the country, various types of brushes were developed for special purposes and occasions, It should be noted that, each brush developed were specially used for particular artistic works but not on others, More specifically, the various brushes developed were used for special purposes like for painting temples, decorating pottery work and furniture work among others (Zhen 32-46),Chinese Brush Development during Tao EraThis is a period which was marked with tremendous increase in artistic use of brush and paint in China, Basically, Tao was a period during the time of Confucianism which was translated as the

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